The Bible is a Library of Books and the Word of Go

The Bible is a library of books.  The name, “Bible,” comes from a Greek word for “scroll,” even though it is often translated, as “book.”  As the written Word of God, its focal message is about the coming, life, and ministry of Jesus Christ who is the living Word of God.  The apostle John explained this in John 1:1-2, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God and the Word was God.”  Both Jesus Christ and the Bible are divine in origin and human in delivery.  Jesus is fully human with undiminished deity according to Romans 9:5, “Christ, who is God above all forever, amen” just as the Bible is from God in human language and form.  They are both very physical, earthly expressions of a Transcendent Godhead. They both miraculously came into existence.  They are absolutely unique in all of human history, when compared to other people and other books.  Both Jesus Christ and the Bible make our understanding of God clearer.  They are to be studied, loved, and obeyed.  Our faith focuses on both.

The Bible is made-up of people to study, poetry to enjoy, prophecy to motivate the practice of godly ethics and morality, precepts to learn and obey, proverbs to ponder in one’s thoughts, and promises to claim.  The Bible is not a “book-of-the-month” nor a “book-of-the-year” but a “Book-of-The-Ages.” Over 40 common people – fisherman, farmers, prophets, kings, political leaders, rich and poor people, educated and uneducated – under the inspiration of The Holy Spirit did the writings of the Bible. It was written over a period of 1,500 years in 3 languages in 10 countries. There are around 2,930 characters in 1,551 places.  It contains a record of God’s revelation of Himself to mankind.  Even with so many writers, all parts of the Bible agree with one another without contradiction or disagreement, just exactly as God had providentially intended, word-for-word.  Every Christian needs to see and understand what the Bible actually is and to form a basis for the study of it today, as well as the interpretation of it in the time that it was written.  This also clears up problems in understanding and guards the church against heresy and error.  Paul explained this to young Timothy, as a pastor, in 2 Timothy 4:2-4, “Preach the word. Be ready at convenient times and at inconvenient times.  Reproved, rebuke, exhort with all patience and teaching.  For a time will be, when they will not hold to healthy doctrine, but having itchy ears they will pile up for themselves teachers according to their own lusts; and, on the one hand, they will steer away from the truth; but, on the other hand, they will turn toward the myths.”

In 2 Peter 1:16-21, the apostle Peter sought to explain that the Bible is more certain and sure than imaginative intellect, human tradition or personal experience: 

“16For not by following sophisticated myths have we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ but by becoming eye-witnesses of his majesty.  17For he received from God the Father honor and glory in a voice brought to him from the Majestic Glory, ‘This is my Beloved Son, in whom I am well delighted.’  18And this voice we ourselves heard, brought from heaven, when we were on the holy mountain. 19And we have more certain the prophetic word, to which you do well in paying close attention, as to a lamp shining in a gloomy place, until when the day might dawn and the Light-bearer might rise up in your hearts, 20knowing this first that every prophecy of scripture does not come about from individual disclosure. 21For prophecy was not carried along at any time by the will of man, but holy men of God spoke, while being carried along by the Holy Spirit.”

His reference in v. 19 to the “prophetic word” meant that what the Bible says in a serious, careful, consistent, historical, and systematic study is more certain than any human experience. The Bible supersedes human truth, that is it is more certain than any human thought or testimony of truth, as Paul noted in 2 Timothy 3:16-17.  Peter’s key term in this passage, “more certain,”[1] means more reliable, sure, firm, dependable, and trustworthy.  The Bible is more reliable in contrast to human experience, intellect, and traditions. Peter continued on in verse 20 by explaining that the Bible is[2] or rather came about, not from any “individual disclosure.”   This term, “individual,”[3] refers to a writer of the Bible relying upon his own thoughts and understanding of God and life and not upon God’s revelation and explanation.  The term translated “disclosure” is only used here in the Greek New Testament and means explanation, interpretation, opinion, and revelation. 

Thus, no book of the Bible was ever written from anyone’s human viewpoint, because the Bible was not inspired by any human decision, but godly men spoke and wrote, as they were inspired and guided by the Holy Spirit, much as a boat is carried along by the wind and waves in a sea.  This term in v. 21, “carried along,” gave a colorful detail with his use of it in reference to the Holy Spirit.  He explained that the writing of the Bible was not carried along by the will of man but holy men of God were carried along by God the Holy Spirit.  This passive verb is also used in Act 27:15, as an interesting parallel, where Paul’s ship in the tempest could not be maneuvered but was “carried along” or “driven” by the wind. 

It is also notable that the New Testament Greek word for both “spirit” and “wind” in general is pneuma.  So the New Testament writers were carried along by the “wind” [pneuma] of the Holy Spirit [Pneuma] to write what God had for them to write within their own personality, culture, language, and time in history – His words…word-for-word. This was what Peter meant in 2 Peter 3:15-16[4] concerning Paul who had further written in 2 Timothy 3:16, “Every scripture is God-breathed and useful for doctrine, for refutation of error, for setting aright, for instruction in righteousness.”

This reference by Peter to Paul writing of Scripture is a part of larger picture in the Bible called “a chain of recognized scriptural authority.” Another example of this can be found in Acts 1:16, where Peter explained how the Holy Spirit spoke scripture through the mouth of David in Psalm 69:25 and Psalm 109:8.  In Acts 4:25 Luke explained how the early Christians said that God spoke the words in Psalm 2:1-2 through the mouth of David.  In 1 Timothy 5:18 Paul explained that Deuteronomy 25:4 written by Moses and Luke 10:7 spoken by Jesus and recorded by Luke were Scripture. In Galatians1:12 Paul explained how he had received his Evangel or Gospel, as direct revelation from Jesus Christ with a detailed description given in 2 Corinthians 12:1-10.  Jude in Jude 17-18 revered the words of Peter, as an apostle, as found in 2 Peter 3:3.

Voddie Baucham, Jr.,[5] put this in very succinct way in his volume, The Ever Loving Truth:  “We have a reliable collection of historical documents written down by eyewitnesses during the lifetime of other eyewitnesses; they reported supernatural events of the fulfillment of specific prophecies that they believed were supernaturally inspired.” Further, in a sense one can believe that the Bible is a time-capsule of truth and history.

Thus, our faith is not philosophical nor speculative nor mystical nor mythical but revelational and historical.  What we find in the Bible is not the kind of things that men would write, even if they could; and if they could, they would not want to.  There are some things that some writers would have wanted to leave out, and other things that others would have wanted to put in.  Such things would be omitting some of the sins and foibles of some of the heroes of the faith.  Also, The Bible’s implicit clarity of our God being a Triune God would have had some writer use the word “Trinity.”  But these only demonstrate the Bible’s divine origin.

If fact, it is interesting to notice the comparison of how The Living Word[6] of God (Jesus Christ) and The Written Word[7] of God (The Bible) are both Divine in origin and Human in delivery – human with undiminished deity (Rom. 9:5).  In Jesus and the Bible we find both very physical, as earthly expressions of an invisible Transcendent Godhead.  They are together both eternal and immutable. Each of their existence came miraculously.  They are unique in all of human history among their peers, when compared to other people and other books.  Light and truth are descriptions used for both of them.  Our understanding of God is made clear in what is seen in Jesus and what is read in the Bible.   Both Jesus and the Bible are to be studied, loved, and obeyed.  The focus of our faith in Jesus Christ comes most clearly in our focus on believing what the Bible says.

As with Jesus our understanding of Him and of the Bible are not supposed to be complicated.  In the Bible the main things are the plain things, and the plain things are the main things.  Further, the Bible is unique in its inspiration, transmission, preservation, clarity of language, effects on people, and timeless relevance.  Daniel Webster noted, “I believe that the Bible is to be understood and received in the plain and obvious meaning of its passages; since I cannot persuade myself that a book intended for the instruction and conversion of the whole world, should cover its true meaning in such mystery and doubt, that none but critics and philosophers can discover it.”[8]

So in careful approach to the Bible, we would have four foundational truths upon which to build our understanding of the Bible and sharing of our Christian Faith:

1. The God-Principle: God exists and can reveal Himself verbally.  This is a matter of faith – not a blind faith but an evidential faith. Such evidence is available and is based upon the faith that an omnipotent God can verbally reveal Himself. 
2. The Language-Principle: God has revealed Himself in the Hebrew and Aramaic Old Testament [Tanach] and Greek New Testament.  This follows from a further expression of evidential faith, in that God has inspired human writers to put in writing what He omnipotently has revealed to them and through them.
3. The Text-Principle: This special revelation, as the Word of God, is verbally found in the canon of the Hebrew and Aramaic Old Testament and canon of the Koine Greek New Testament. Their canonical books, as texts, are a duplication of the autographs, that can be historically determined from among a multiplicity of extant manuscripts of the Hebrew and Aramaic Old Testament (with comparison to the Septuagint) and the Greek New Testament by means of a sound and consistent system of textual evaluation. [This Bible is totally true and accurate about anything concerning reality, theology, history, and science.  Believers throughout the centuries past have always had an accurate wording of the Bible, as God’s Word, and have carefully passed this text on.] 
4. The Interpretation-Principle of Perspicuity: The Bible must be understood and thus interpreted in the time that it was originally written.  In a careful study of its original languages within their culture and history, every believer can fully understand the wording of the Old and New Testaments in their original languages or, at least, in careful translations through diligent study and with help by God’s Holy Spirit.  To put it another way:  God does not “mumble” but desires to be understood by all people.

Because of this understanding of the Bible, it is the most unique among books. We study and believe the Bible, in that:

The Origin of our Faith is the Word of God.

The Object of our Faith is the God of the Word.

The Observation of our Faith is of the God in the Word.

What we can believe about God can be found in the Bible. Thus, we believe in the Triune God described in the Bible.  What we study in our Bible are the details of the true and living God of the Universe. It thus behooves us to so study, as a matter of spiritual authority in the Bible.   Our Bible  is sufficient, living in its canon, and efficient, energetic in its brevity of size, and proficient critiquing the considerations and deliberations of the heart, as sharper beyond any two-edged gladius-sword and penetrating until a separation both of soul and spirit.

Ancient Writings and Languages in the Ancient World

Various writing materials of the Old Testament and New Testament times involved such things, as stones, clay tablets, metal sheets and plates, animal skins, and papyrus.  The use of stones is described in Exodus 24:12; 34:1ff.  Such examples of stones which have survived to this day are The Moabite Stone, The Rosetta Stone, The Stone slab of Pilate, and The Erastus’ inscriptions. Sun-baked clay tablets were used in the ancient world, such as the ancient Sumerian tablets written sometime after Babel and the Akkadian tablets written during the time of Abraham. There are also extant Ugaritic tablets used during the days of Joshua and the Judges.  Among these tablets was even one baked clay tablet with a thumb print. Such clay tablets were even used up to 100 AD.

Metal scrolls, such as, copper scrolls have been found among the Qumran Dead Sea scrolls.  Tablets made of lead are mentioned in Job 19:24.  A silver amulet was found near Jerusalem dating from the mid 600’s BC with a Hebrew inscription very similar to Numbers 6:22-27.

Parchments were made of animal skins, such as calfskin, sheepskin, or goatskin. Such very fine quality parchment is called vellum.  These were popular during the biblical era.  Paul even mentioned “parchments”[9] in 2 Timothy 4:13.

Papyrus[10] was the most common of ancient writing materials.  It was made from the moist pressured crisscrossing of thin strips cut lengthwise from the inner rind of a rush-reed plant common in Egypt and Syria.  This inner rind was called byblos, since it was popularized in Byblos, an ancient Syrian city a little northeast of modern-day Beirut.  The Greek word for “book,” or rather “scroll,” is biblos coming from this name.  The English word Bible comes from this very word for book.

As to languages and literacy, written forms of languages began in the Middle East among Semitic peoples.  The Sumerians had one of the earliest of written languages.  Pictograms were common worldwide, but languages along the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia and Egypt began to develop a syllabic form. Early Babylonian had some 600 symbols for various syllable sounds, where symbols were phonetic and stood for sounds rather than pictorial concepts.  The next development was from a syllabic form to a consonantal alphabetic form which developed among the Canaanite languages of Ugaritic, Moabite, Amorite, Phoenician, and Hebrew.  The Phoenicians took this alphabet west to Javan in an early form of Greek, where this consonantal alphabet acquired vowels, as we find later in Homeric Greek and later in Latin and English.

Abraham spoke Akkadian.  But, when he and his descendants settled in Canaan, they began to use Hebrew which is similar to other Canaanite languages.  This was their native language called “Judean” in 2 Kings 18:26, which they used until after the Babylonian Captivity.  The Israelis during their Exile adopted Aramaic as their cultural language.  One will note this in Nehemiah 8:8.  Here Ezra read the Law in Hebrew and then translated it into Aramaic for the Jewish listeners.  Parts of Ezra are in Biblical Aramaic, as well as a few chapters in Daniel. However, classical, biblical Hebrew had been used continuously by the prophets to Malachi and for religious purpose to this very day.  In the 19th century Jewish scholars began to develop a cultural form of Modern Hebrew based upon biblical Hebrew.  Then, in the 20th century this modern-day language became the national language of the State of Israel.[11]

The roots of the Greek of the New Testament began in the days of the conquests by Alexander the Great.  The Greeks of his army developed what has come to be called Koine [“Common”] Greek. This language in the fourth century BC became the universal language of the Middle East.  The Hellenistic Age was from about 300 BC to 300 AD, during which was the Koine Period of Greek.  This began with Alexander the Great developing what came to be called Koine Greek and spreading it from Greece through Asia [Minor], Persia, Judah, Egypt, and on to the borders of India.  When Rome conquered Greece and went east, they basically adopted this Koine Greek as a convenient language for the eastern part of their empire. Throughout the Middle East, by the first century, most everyone knew and used Koine Greek nationally and internationally. 

How do we know the Bible was originally in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek?

Since the cultural language of Israel was Classical Hebrew, also called Biblical Hebrew, their Scripture popularly called The Tanach was originally composed in this form of Hebrew, except for a few chapters in Ezra and Daniel composed in Aramaic.  The most ancient manuscripts of their Bible are in Hebrew.  All other forms of their Bible in other languages are translations from the Hebrew text, or perhaps a translation[12] from a translation of their Hebrew text.  Also, regarding those passages in Aramaic, there are not extant texts of these passages in Hebrew but only Hebrew translations of these originally Aramaic passages.

By the first century everyone in the Middle East had learned Greek for very practical purposes.  Jesus and His Apostles knew Greek and taught in Greek.  For example, one will notice their teaching in Greek by their use of such things, as “hypocrite” [literally means, actor].  This was a common word in Greek but not that much in Aramaic, the family-language among Jews of that day.  The Greek New Testament does actually quote various Aramaic expressions with Greek letters and then translates them into Greek for the original readers who read Greek. If the New Testament text had originally been given in Aramaic, from which our Greek New Testament is simply a translation, then these Aramaic expressions would not have been given in Greek letters then in Greek translation but would have been simply a part of the Aramaic narrative without any such glosses.  It is also notable that there are no extant manuscripts of any early original Aramaic New Testament text but only a popular Aramaic translation of the Greek New Testament made some centuries later called the Peshitta. In fact, all standard translations of the New Testament are from an original Greek text or from a translation[13] that was a translation of an original Greek text.  So with these and many other reasons, we can believe that the New Testament was originally inspired and written in the Koine Greek of the Hellenistic era in the same language as the Septuagint.  The development of this form of Greek provided some intricacies for God to reveal Himself in the New Testament and for the early church’s missionary efforts to have one main language for their international ministry.  Koine Greek was not only used in the Greek New Testament but also in The Apostolic Father and in the writings of Polybius, Strabo, Epictetus, Lucias, Philo, Josephus, Plutarch, Eusebius, Iraneus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Tatian, Justin Martyr, and Origen. Koine Greek’s popularity and common use can be seen in the study of coins and inscriptions of that era. 

Biblical Hebrew

There are some English words that have come from Old Testament Hebrew, such as: camel, cane, czar, eye, harem, seven, six, Amen, Jubilee, Messiah, mezuzah, Sabaoth, Satan, seraph, shalom, Sheol, shekkinah, and Torah.  On the other hand, there are some newly coined English words from the Hebrew Old Testament that have been introduced into the English language of the community of faith, such as, Adonai, El, Elohim, Goel, Kippur, Mabul (Noah’s flood), Mashiach [Messiah], muzzusah, nephesh, neshema, Pesach, Purim, Shem, shophar, and yom.

Hebrew has basically two tenses:  perfect (completed action) and imperfect (incompleted action of the present or future). However, it also has what is called a “vav-consecutive” or “vav-conversive”.  It is an odd use of the tenses of verbs.  A vav (normally meaning “and”) can be prefixed to a verb in the perfect (or past) tense form for an action in the present or future or to a verb in the imperfect (or present/future) tense form for an action in the past.  In other words, past tense verbs are used for future ideas, such as prophecies; and future tense verbs are used for past tense ideas, such as historical narratives. Examples of this can be found in Isaiah 9:6-7; 53:4ff.

The alphabet used in Hebrew today and since the Babylonian Captivity is actually the Aramaic alphabet.  We do know from tablets and inscriptions that the earlier alphabet used in Hebrew was a paleo-Hebrew alphabet similar to what the Phoenicians took to Greece in a mirror image of what would become the Greek alphabet, that corresponds somewhat to the Latin alphabet that is used in English.  So some letters in the paleo-Hebrew alphabet appear to be in a mirror-image somewhat similar to our corresponding English letters.

Biblical Aramaic

In Aramaic, most translation will transliterate Daniel 5:25b, “Mene’, Mene’, Teqel, Upharsin,” which mean respectively, “numbered, numbered, weighed, and divided” (where the word translated “divided” can also be translated Persia, thus a play on words for “divided by Persia”).  Some of the instruments in Dan.3:5 are qarna’ (apparently related to the Greek word, keras, “horn,” which may be connected to the English word, “cornet”), qithram (apparently connected to the English word, “kithara” and “zither”), psanterin (from the Greek word for “psaltery”), and sumponyah (from the Greek word, symphonia, from which comes “symphony” in English).

Both Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic use the plural form for God, i.e., gods, to denote Yahweh [Jehovah].  So, it is a judgment call on the part of the translator, as to whether to translate the Aramaic word at the end of Dan. 3:25, as “God” or “the gods.” It can mean either.

Biblical Greek

In Biblical Greek, a number of English cognates from the Greek New Testament would include: angel, anthropology, Apocalypse, antichrist, atheist, baptism, Christ, cosmos, deacon, demon, diabolical, diadem, dynamism, eucharist, evangelist, Hades, iota, apostolic/apostle, criterion, ecclesiastical, economy, hema-, Magi, martyr, mega-, paradise, pneumatic, presbyterian, prophet, theology, pyro-, and sympathy. 

In another pathway the Church has taken some certain Greek words and transliterated them into English, as a part of our Christian parlance.  From the Greek New Testament the following words have come into somewhat common use: Abba, Alpha, charisma, eschaton, Gehenna, glossalalia kerygma, mega, Omega, parousia, pascha, psyche, Sabbath, sophia, and Tartarus. 

On the other hand, there have come some newly coined English word from these biblical languages that have been introduced into language of the community of faith.  James Kennedy sought to do this in his Evangelism Explosion witnessing training program with tetelestai (in John 19:30), which was a financial Koine term that Jesus used for his propitiation on the cross with the special meaning of “paid in full.”  Some other words from the Greek New Testament, that have specifically been introduced into English are: agape, anastasis, ekklesia, gnosis, hilasmos, Harpage, kenosis, koinonia, logos, parthenos, philadelphia, theos, and zoe. 

In contrast to modern English grammar which has only the subjective, objective, and possessive cases, Greek grammar has the added “dative” case and the “genitive” case that is much more expanded than the English possessive case.  The dative case is much like English’s indirect object but much broader.  It possesses what English communicates in its prepositions: to, for, by, in, within, among, at, by means of, with, for, and against.  The genitive case can sometimes be translated with the possessive case or with the preposition, “of,” – however other prepositions may communicate more accurately what it means, such as, by, for, from, consisting of, or characterized by. It also may be used after a noun that is related to a verb for which it is the subject or object of the verbal idea, such as “the blasphemy of the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 12:31) or “the faith of Christ” actually meaning “the faith in Christ” (Rom. 3:22).

An example worthy of notice in Greek grammar would be the various tenses in Greek. The present tense has a continuous concept not necessarily in English.  The aorist tense can be a simple past tense or can have a timelessness to its action.  The perfect tense is not like the English perfect tense, in that it refers to an action in the past but focuses upon the present, continuing effects or results of the action.

Using original biblical language words and concepts in teaching and preaching

For those who have not studied these biblical languages, a teacher or preacher will find that most people, in general, will respond positively in use of any actual, original language words transliterated from these biblical languages, when:

1. It has become an English cognate word which came etymologically from the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek word being studied.  If the present-day usage of such an Anglicized word differs somewhat from its best translation, this situation must be explained.[14]
2. Sometimes a new word may be introduced into English from the original languages in our community of faith, because it has a particular or special thought or idea not found within any English word.  An example of this would be agape, koinonia, etc. [15]
3. In a discussion of synonyms and related words an actual pronunciation of a word from the original languages may be helpful in noting the differences of words for a similar idea, such as, the NT idea of “love” being found in agape, philia, and storgos (as in astorgos).[16]

In addition to certain specialty-words from the original languages of the Bible, there have been some colorful biblical Hebrew and Greek expressions or idioms that have come by way of the popularity of their literal translation into usage by our Modern English:

“the fat of the land” – Genesis 45:18             “a land flowing with milk and honey” – Ex. 3:8.

“the stars in their courses.” – Judges 5:20      Shibboleth versus Sibboleth – Judges 12:6

“a man after his own heart” – 1 Sam. 13:14   “the mighty” – 2 Samuel 1:25.

“with the skin of my teeth” – Job 19:20         “the valley of the shadow of death” – Psalm 23:5

“heap coals of fire” – Proverbs 25:21-22       “cast your bread upon the water” – Eccl. 11:1

“a drop in the bucket” – Isaiah 40:15             “the salt of the earth” – Matthew5:15

“pearls before swine” – Matthew 7:6             “a law unto oneself” – Rom. 2:14

“the inner man” – Ephesians  3:16

Inspiration and a Creationist Model of the Autographs

Inspiration forms a basis for Canonization, which in turn forms a basis for Preservation of copies of the Bible.  These preserved copies of the Bible become a basis for the Interpretation and Study and Application of God’s Word.  In the writing of the Scriptures, God inspired the writers with what to write providentially word-for-word.  The first and original manuscript of any given book of the Bible is referred to, as an “autograph,”[17] all of which have long since disappeared. Thus, the Bible is the Word of God, as even the Words of God, inspired in their autographs.  In his further providence, these texts were selectively collected by believers into canons of the Hebrew and Aramaic Old Testament and Koine Greek New Testament.  However, in his further providence, God has sought to have the wording of the autographs preserved through the centuries within a multiplicity of manuscripts, most notably found in the Majority textform, so that the most believers throughout the centuries would have an accurate duplication of the autographs from which to study.  This study would involve a careful and accurate interpretation either within its original language or in translation.

Paul penned a key text for the inspiration of the Bible along with its application in 2 Timothy 2:16, “Every scripture is God-breathed and useful for doctrine, for refutation of error, for setting-upright, for instruction in righteousness.”  Both canons of the Bible were God-breathed.  It is interesting to compare this concept with Genesis1:24-27; 2:7. In contrast to the animals, when God created man,[18] he “breathed” into him “the breath of life.” The speciality of man is that he is “God-breathed.”  Only man has the image of God in his everlasting soul, even as only the Bible has God’s image in words on a supernatural level.  One can thus make a parallel of the contrast of man with animals and the contrast of the Bible with human literature in general.   

So then, this word meaning “God-breathed” does not simply mean that God breathed into the Scriptures some form of inspiration. It rather portrays the Scriptures themselves as being “breathed forth” by Almighty God. The Scriptures are a divinely inspired, supernatural book. They have the power to impart new life to the one who believes the good news recorded in them. God the Holy Spirit moved men of God to record His infallible Word for the benefit of mankind (2 Peter 1:21). All ideas that the Scriptures are “inspiring” to the readers are inadequate to set forth the “God-breathed” quality of the Holy Scriptures.  So, the focus one inspiration is on the original language text of the Bible.[19]

According to Romans 2:14-15, “For, when Gentiles not having a law by nature might do the things of the law, these not having a law are a law to themselves, who display the work of the law written in their hearts by their conscience bearing a co-witness and by their thoughts accusing or even defending between themselves,” the God-breathed words of the Law are written in human hearts in which God breathed in man His breath of life.  An interesting illustration of this would be similar to what is called “cardiopulmonary resuscitation” (CPR) with a somewhat supernatural “CPR” of God breathing into his writers His Spirit and His Word for teaching, for convicting, for setting one straight, for training in right living.  God supernaturally breathed into the minds and hearts of “holy men of God” His Word which is then manually exhaled in the form of the autograph providentially, as He sovereignly designed.

Thus, we are to interpret the Bible in the time that it was written by finding:

What God said – Finding the textform closest to the autographs.

What God meant – Finding how the text was understood in its linguistic, historical, cultural, progressive revelational, and intertexual context.

What God says – A careful, accurate explanation and translation.

What God means – How to apply it today.

One can expand upon this by noting the following five summary principles of the Bible from being penned to being practiced:

Plenary, Verbal Inspiration in Special Revelation of the Autographs by God the Holy Spirit – The Hebrew Tanach and Greek New Covenant, as special revelation, were fully given by God in human language forms.

Providence in Canonization through the Church – Believers early on recognized these particular 24 texts (scrolls) of the Hebrew Tanach (renumbered, as 39 in our Bibles) and 27 texts (scrolls) of the Greek New Covenant, as canons.

Preservation in Historical Transmission of the text of the Autographs by God the Holy Spirit – From the autographs of the Hebrew Tanach and Greek New Covenant writings through the centuries there is a “paper trail” of manuscripts that accurately contained the words from which copies that they were copied in a mainstream, Majority, Byzantine textform duplicating the autographs in their multiplicity.

Perspicuity in Exegetical Study of edited duplication of the text of the Autographs by God the Holy Spirit even in translation – Perspicuity is the concept that edited texts of these two canons have clarity and lucidity with little obscurity and can be accurately read and understood by believers today, especially in its original language of inspiration.  Foundational to this is that readers can know what had been originally written in the autographs and what the original writer or speaker historically meant in the wording at the time they were written.

Practice in Faithful Living – The transcultural message of these two canons of Scripture can be readily translated and applied to faithful, daily living in all cultures, generations, languages, geographical areas and eras of human history.

How God Revealed His Word and Had It Recorded

There is a popular view that the Bible, as a text of the recorded events, “evolved” from oral traditions, as “tales around a campfire” according to some. However, the traditional view within the community of faith over the centuries is that God revealed things to the writers who wrote it down, as the named authors for each book.  It is true that God did use each writer's language, personality, interests, and historical context, but this erroneous idea of oral tradition is based upon a false assumption of widespread illiteracy among the ancient patriarchs.   Knowledge and literacy go back to the time of Noah, and then before the time of Noah such knowledge and literacy may have been even greater, than what most moderns think that the case is.  According to the Bible, there were no “cavemen” in human history.  These mythical cavemen are only found in pockets of human communities through the centuries, that “devolved” into what we picture as cavemen today.  Even Moses, the first to record things in the Bible, had both writings from his forefathers and insights from God's Spirit as to what to write.  The concept of “oral tradition” is quite popular but relies upon an evolutionary approach to anthropology and social development that the Bible does not depict.

Historically, illiteracy was the norm throughout history, but the translations of the Bible jumpstarted literacy in Europe and the Middle East and move throughout the rest of the world.  Illiteracy was the norm; the pastors’ home was the first school.  Every morning they began with singing then Bible reading.  The Christian faith is a singing religion, more so than most any other. Probably, 80% of scripture memorization today exists only because of what is sung.

An Interesting Description of Special Revelation

Jeremiah in Jeremiah 36 gives an interesting story of how God had His word committed to writing.  In Jeremiah 36:1, The LORD spoke certain words to the prophets who then wrote all these words down on a scroll.  Verses 27-32 record the specific details that are found in Jeremiah 32:3; 25:9-11; 26:9; 22:19 and 30.[20]  In Jeremiah 36:4, Baruch appeared to be an amanuensis used by Jeremiah, as later Tertius was used by Paul in Romans.16:22; and Mark was used by Peter.  In verse 6, the scrolls’ wording was explicitly referred to, as the words of the LORD.  In verses 17-18, these princes specifically asked how this came to be written. Baruch listened to Jeremiah and wrote down what he had said in ink on a scroll. Further, in verses 26-27 Baruch, the scribe, wrote by “the mouth” (dictation) of Jeremiah, the prophet, the word of the LORD.  In verse 28 Baruch was instructed to write a duplicate copy the same way, as he had the first copy.  In verse 32 Baruch wrote a duplicate copy of the previous scroll and then added similar words form the LORD to the form of the Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations.

An Evolutionary Model of Supposed Textual Origins

In academic biblical studies, the Documentary Hypothesis and The Synoptic Problem both attempt to describe a similar “model of origins” of the Books of Moses and The New Testament Gospels respectively.  In the classic Documentary Hypothesis proponents have taken the extant Hebrew text of the Pentateuch and sought to discern some the texts of some four editors, such at the Jehovist, Elohist, Priestly, and Deuteronomist editors, whose texts were edited to what we have today in a process of evolutionary development during the 1,000-year period after Moses died. 

Some of the passages of the Pentateuch supposedly began as “fireside stories” among the Jews and were committed to writing and compiled long after Moses’ time. The editing process resembles the evolutionary model of origins found in biology and anthropology and paleontology, as to what survived in and what was omitted from our present Hebrew Pentateuch. Thus, this is new study in textual criticism does have an interesting parallel to the evolutionary model in biology popularized by Darwin in the mid-19th century.  The Documentary Hypothesis did begin in the 18th century with Jean Astruc of France but developed much more later in Germany in the 19th century.  It is based upon broad, subjective observations made to fit a pre-conceived model.[21]  However, during the 20th and 21st centuries many more details have been brought into this discussion in biology within the study of genetics.  Theses DNA structures appear to be an “alphabetic blueprint” of life. So a fiat-creation of life and animals is gaining much credence in contrast to evolution.  In a similar way the more traditional view of the “fiat-origins” of the books of the Pentateuch in particular and the Tanach in general is gaining more credence than the Documentary Hypothesis.

In a similar way, the proponents studying the Synoptic Problem have taken the extant Greek texts of the Four Gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John – and sought to discern how they evolved.  This also involves an evolutionary process, as to whether Matthew developed from Mark or Mark from Matthew.  There is also a proposed, but non-extant, “fifth Gospel” called “Q” in the evolutionary mix, that tries to fill in “the missing links.”

A Creationist Model of Textual Origins

The scientific model of evolution in biology sets forth the interpretation of the scientific data that there was a gradual emergence of present species with a DNA-basis over aeons of time.  This came with a “vertical” emergence of complex and diversified species of life from “lower” simpler species and ultimately from nonliving matter. 

In contrast, the scientific model of creationism in biology sets forth the interpretation of the scientific data that there was a sudden creation of complex and diversified kinds or species of life by a special creation of their DNA, with systematic gaps persisting between different kinds and with genetic variation occurring within each kind since the time of creation.  Along a similar vein, the scientific model of intelligent design seeks to show that some features of living things have a DNA-design unaccountable by the means of random chance, especially examples regarding irreducible complexity. 

By applying this parallel in a very general way to the Hebrew and Greek canons of Scripture, one will find an interesting approach as to how the autographs came into being.  In the Appendix are found a list of some parallel points in a creationist model for the origin of these two canons.

In summary, the Hebrew Tanach and Greek New Testament did not evolve in some editing process from earlier and lost manuscripts with different forms and wordings.  The original autograph of each book came to be supernaturally inspired and written, i.e., created, in some relatively short period of time during the life of the named author.  The wording of its text in transmission has remained somewhat unchanged over the centuries varying “horizontally”[22] but not “vertically”[23] down through the centuries.  Further, an intelligent, even supernatural, design can be found within each of them individually and among them in a cogent and congruent set of two canons of progressive revelation.

Canonicity

 Canonicity comes from the Greek word, kanōn, which originally was a (measuring) reed.  This background of the word connoted the idea of that which was used to see what “measures up.”  To begin with the canon of Scripture is “a collection of authoritative books” rather than “an authoritative collection of books” – i.e., they are not canonical, because they are on the list; they are on the list, because they are canonical. Examples of this idea can be noted in Exodus 24:7 and 1 Corinthians 14:37, where the people of God recognize the authoritativeness from the very beginning.   Thus, “authority precedes canonicity.”  In other words, the canons were not determined but were discovered.

During the first 300 years of the Church, as canonization was developing, there was enough time to copy the autographs of what would become the canonical books in such a large number of manuscripts, that no one could come along and alter the wording of one manuscript to fit another.  So this can give one much confidence in using the extant Greek New Testament manuscripts to replicate the autographs.

Also, during the intertestamental period Ezra’s collecting of the Old Testament canonical books allowed time for bringing about a form of the text that would not have one future manuscript altered to fit another. 

The doctrine of God’s providential preservation formed a biblical tradition of these 66 books, of which the 39 books of our Old Testament are the same as the 24[24] books in the Hebrew canon, along with 27 books in the Greek New Testament canon.  Thus, by their original counting of 51 books, this is the same text as our present 66 books.

The Canon of the Hebrew Old Testament – The Tanach

The Old Testament Hebrew canon of scriptures, called the Tanach, is divided into three sections:  The Law, called The Torah; The Prophets, called the Nabiim; and The Writings, called the Ketubim.  “Tanach”[25] came from taking the first Hebrew letters of each of these three Hebrew names in order and adding vowels between.  It is interesting that Jesus spoke of this three-part division in Luke 24:44,[26] where He described the Tanach, as “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms” (which is a synecdoche for The Writings).

Adam was very intelligent with a language for naming and conversation, and thus apparently literate.  Enoch (seventh from Adam) wrote a prophecy recorded in Jude 14.Noah could have taken custody of writings by these before the Flood and could have written about the Flood.

Peleg was a great-great-grandson of Shem who may have had these writings and passed them on to Abraham, when Noah and Eber were still alive.  Job lived in the land of Uz, a descendant of Shem. Such writings could have been received by Levi and passed on to Kohath and Amran to Moses.  God could have inspired Moses in Hebrew, as he had these writings to write Genesis and then beginning with his life in Exodus through Deuteronomy.  Hebrew literacy was available from Joshua on through Malachi for the inspired writing of The Prophets and The Writings. 

The following lists the Hebrew canonical books in these three sections:

The Tanach is composed of these 24 Scrolls (listed with their Hebrew names and meaning):

The Law of Moses –   Genesis – Bershith – “In the beginning”

Torah                          Exodus – We’elleh shemoth – “Now these are the names”

Leviticus – Wayyiqra’ – “And he called”

Numbers – Bemidhbar – “In the wilderness”

Deuteronomy – ‘Elleh haddebharim – “These are the words”

The Prophets:  Former –         Joshua – Yehoshua

Nebhi’im                                 Judges – Shophetim

Samuel – Shemuel

Kings – Melachim

Latter –            Isaiah – Yesha’eyahu

                        Jeremiah – Yirmeyahu

                        Ezekiel – Yehezq’el

                        “The Twelve”:  Hosea – Hoshea’

Joel – Yo’el

Amos – ‘Amos

Obadiah – ‘Obhadyah

Jonah – Yonah

Micah – Michah

Nahum – Nahum 

Habakkuk – Habhaqquq 

Zephaniah – Sephanyah 

Haggai – Haggai 

Zechariah – Zecharyah 

Malachi – Mal’achi 

The Writings:  History –         Psalms – Tehillim

Chethubhim    (Poetry,           Job – ’Iyobh

                   Books of Truth)   Proverbs – Mishlei 

                        Megilloth –     Ruth – Ruth [Pentecost]

                        (5 Scrolls)       Song of Solomon – Shir HaShirim – “Song of Song” [Passover]

                                                Ecclesiastes – Qoheleth – Assembly leader, preacher [Tabernacles]

                                                Lamentations – ‘Ichah [destruction of Jerusalem by Nebu. on Ab 9]

                                                Esther – Esther [Purim]

                        Narratives –    Daniel – Dani’el

                        (History)         Ezra-Nehemiah – ‘Ezre’ - Nehemyah

                                                Chronicles - Dibhrei HaYamim – “Words of the Days”

One of the earliest records that we have of the canon of the Hebrew Old Testament is the Septuagint commonly abbreviated as LXX (for 70 which was a round number for the 72 traditional scholars who were involved in its translation.)  The Septuagint[27] is a Koine Greek translation of The Hebrew Torah originally and is loosely applied to the Koine Greek translation of the whole Tanach along with some other early Jewish writings (commonly referred to, as the Apocrypha).  This was done during the period 200 to 100BC and became, in a sense, a “bridge” between the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament linguistically and theologically. It has become “the authorized version of the Old Testament” for the Eastern Orthodox Church.[28]  Also, the International Organization of Septuagint and Cognate Studies has produced and published a more scholarly translation called the New English Translation of the Septuagint.[29]  The Septuagint contains the books of our English canon which is the same as the books of the Hebrew canon along with a few more chapters to some canonical books and a few extra books that have come to be called the Apocrypha.   

Josephus is another source for noting the number of books to be found in the Old Testament canon.  He wrote, “…we do not possess myriads of inconsistent books, conflicting with each other.  Our books, those which are justly accredited, are but two and twenty,[30] and contain the record of all time. [Ruth was combined with Judges, and Lamentations was combined with Jeremiah to form 22.][31]

Our English Bible commonly lists these 24 books, as 39 in the categories of Law (Genesis–Deuteronomy), History (Joshua—Esther), Poetry (Job – Song of Solomon), & Prophecy (Major Prophets:  Isaiah– Daniel and Minor Prophets:  Hosea – Malachi).

The next major historical listing of the canonical books of the Hebrew Old Testament was at the community of Jamnia about 100 AD.  There was a Jewish council that met at Jamnia and listed these 24 scrolls. This was not an issue of designation but rather of confirmation and recognition of what was already commonly held in the Jewish community.

Here are some eleven principles of canonicity historically used by the Church, as criteria for the Old Testament Canon:

1) Authoritative Utterances – “Thus says the LORD...” was a first step in being a part of the canon, The Word of God.  God gave Moses His Words which he put down in writing (Exodus 24:3ff).“The words of the LORD are pure words, Like silver tried in a furnace of earth, Purified seven times.” (Psalm 12:6). 

2) Authoritative, Commissioned early Hebrew Messengers – God commissioned prophets who wrote His Word and of His will, so most books are named after the author.

3) Authoritative Documents – In Deuteronomy 31:24-26, Moses wrote God’s words in a book and commanded the Levites to put it in the ark.  In Jeremiah 36, the process is described in an example of the writing of Scripture.[32]

4) Authoritative Collection of Writings – The Torah of Moses was the first to be officially collected and acknowledged as a canon.  Then the Prophets began to be so recognized, as their ministries were fulfilled.  Lastly, the Writings were traditionally read at annual feasts and so became a part.

5) Use in Jewish Public Reading – In Nehemiah 8:5-8, Ezra read from The Torah of Moses.  Over the centuries in Jewry these 24 scrolls have been consistently recognized and read and providentially preserved.

6) The Analogy of Faith – The OT canon has a cohesive theology in a progressive revelation (where Romans 12:6 explains a concept of “the standard of the faith”). 

7) Languages of Inspiration – Copies needed to be extant in Classical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic which are considered the original languages of inspiration.[33]

8) New Testament Quotation – The New Testament quoted passages from the Old Testament canon as Scripture (Matthew 22:29; John 5:39; 10:35).  Each book is specifically quoted from (except for Judges, Ruth, Ezra, Esther, and Song of Solomon).  In Luke 11:51 Jesus endorsed all of the canon, as also in Matthew 23:36.

9) Fixed Canon – The Septuagint recognized all of the Hebrew Old Testament canon and then some seven other additional books. In the preface to Ecclesiasticus in the LXX (about 132 BC), mention is made to the Law, the Prophets, and other books.  In Luke 24:44, Jesus spoke of the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms (the first book of The Writings).  In Luke 11:51 (Matthew 23:36), the reference to Abel and Zacharias are found in Genesis 4:10 and 2 Chronicles 24:20-21 which are the first and last books in the arrangement in the Hebrew canon.   Josephus in Contra Apion (1,8) wrote of 22 books which could be the 24 of the Hebrew canon with some books counted double, written from Moses to the reign of Artaxerxes of Persia.  The Council of Jamnia (about 90AD) somewhat solidified the canon.  Eusebius and Tertullian also wrote of such a canon.  Although early on, some scrolls had a difficult time getting in:  Esther (with not mention of God nor prayer), Song of Sol., Eccl. (too humanistic), and Ezekiel.

10) Accuracy in History and Science – 

History:  Genesis 23:10; 25:9; Exodus 34:11 – The Hittites were an actual nation.

Dan.5:30-31 – “King” Belshazzar was conquered by Darius the Mede (which was a title of Gubara, a viceroy to Cyrus)

Science:  Genesis 1:16 explains how the moon dust being less than 1” means that it has been gravitationally collected for only thousands of years and not billions of years.

Leviticus 17:11 tells of the importance of blood in humans, as life-blood.

Numbers 19:14 can be understood because microbes cause diseases and need quarantine.

Job 40:15-41:34 describes dinosaurs living during the time in which man did.

Job 26:8 describes clouds, as being actually liquid water.

Job 26:7 tells how the earth hangs on nothing but floats [in space in an orbit around the sun because of gravity.]

Psalm 19:6 tells how the sun in empty space sends forth heat by radiation.

Ecclesiastes 1:7 describes the hydrologic cycle.

Isaiah 40:22 describes how the earth is a circle or sphere which explains Psalms 103:12 and Proverbs 8:26 and Luke 17:34-36.

Isaiah 51:6 is explained by how The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy [that is disorderliness naturally] increases with time.

Isaiah 55:9 is understood, as there is a vastness in space.

Jeremiah 33:22 tells how the number of stars is uncountable.

Luke 17:34-36 describes a single event at a single time point, so this would be possible for any point of time with multiple time-zones.

1 Corinthians 15:39 tells how man and animals are similar but distinct.

11) Personal Testimony – As a believer reads through the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament (and the Greek canon of the New Testament) and then through other books, he or she will sense and find a difference.  There is something distinctive and special about the Bible.

The Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were generally written after 200 BC.  The Old Testament Apocrypha is also called the Anaginoskomena[34] or “Deuterocanonical” books.  Although they have been accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church and by the Roman Catholic Church and some Protestant churches (among whom is the Church of England who did include them in some editions of the King James Version translation), most Protestants and Jews and Evangelicals have found them only interesting to read but not biblical, as inspired.

      The following is a list of these books:

Philosophical and History –

Wisdom of Solomon – Sapientia (like Proverbs and Ecclesiastes with Greek philosophy added).

Ecclesiasticus – Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach (quite interesting and philosophical).

Tobit (a fictitious Jew involved with spiritism).

Judith (the fictitious heroine kills an evil general).

1 Esdras (a continuation of Ezra and rebuilding the temple).

2 Esdras (the mystery of human destiny).

1 Maccabees (Israel’s patriotic struggle against Assyria).

2 Maccabees (victory of Judas Maccabees & Hanukkah).

3 Maccabees (a religious novel of Jewish struggles).

4 Maccabees (a philosophical Jewish treatise [with some odd teachings about martyrdom]).

Bible-related –

Baruch (supposedly the assistant to Jeremiah).

Letter of Jeremiah (the folly of idolatry).

Additions to Esther (this text does mention God and prayer).

Additions to Daniel: 

 The Song of the Three Young Men (in the fiery furnace).

  The Prayer of Azariah (Abednego).

  Susanna (Daniel cleverly defends her honor against two dirty old men.)

  Bel and the Dragon (Daniel exposed the trickery of pagan priests in their temple.)

Prayer of Manasseh (2 Chronicles 33:19 some 500 years later).

Psalm 151 (some factious details about Goliath).

      To summarize, these Books of the Apocrypha are not found in the traditional Hebrew Old Testament nor in the Greek New Testament.  They were not recognized by the Council of Jamnia and appear to have not been written before 400 BC, as were all of the Hebrew canonical books. They have historical and geographical inaccuracies and are not totally doctrinally sound, such as where:

2 Maccabees 14:41-46 justifies suicide.

2 Maccabees 12:41-45 teaches of prayers for the dead in order to save them. 

2 Esdras 8:33 teaches of works salvation.

Judith 1:1, 7 – Judith mistakenly identifies Nebuchadnezzar as king of the Assyrians. 

Tobit 1:3-5; 14:11 describes how Tobit claims to have been alive when Jeroboam revolted (931 B.C.) and when Assyria conquered Israel (722 B.C.), despite the fact that his lifespan was only a total of 158 years.

Tobit 6:6, 7 explains how Tobit endorses the superstitious use of fish liver to ward off demons. 

Tobit 12:9 teaches salvation by the good work of almsgiving.

Wisdom of Solomon 7:17 teaches of the creation of the world from pre-existent matter. 

Beyond this group is a third group called The Pseudepigrapha which means “Falsely ascribed writings.”  The following is a partial list of these: 

Testament of Adam

Life of Adam and Eve

1 & 2 & 3 Enoch[35]

Ladder of Jacob (a later work describing Genesis28:12)

Joseph and Aseneth (based upon the canonical passage in Genesis 41:45)

Assumption or Testament of Moses[36]

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah[37] 

Jannes and Jamabres[38] 

Jubilees

More Psalms of David

Psalms of Solomon

The Canon of the Greek New Testament

      The writing of the New Testament was during the days of the Book of Acts through 95 AD.  Individual letters were circulated, as Paul mentions in Colossians 4:16 about the letter of Colossians and a letter to the Laodocians.  Peter considered Paul’s letters on the same level as the rest of the Scriptures in 2 Peter3:15-16.   By 100 to 150 AD, these scrolls had been collected and combined into groups and eventually into book-form called a codex on into the fifth century.  Hand copies were made all over the known world up to the invention of the printing press in the mid-1500’s.

It is important to note that the canon of Scripture is a collection of authoritative books rather than an authoritative collection of books. This means that they are not canonical, because they are on the list; they are on the list, because they were already canonical.  The process of canonization was not so much specifying books, as canonical but recognizing what was fittingly canonical.  In retrospect, the 27 canonical books did fit a certain criteria.

Principles of Canonicity:  What are the Criteria for the New Testament Canon

      The principles of canonicity were that a book of the New Testament was to be Ancient (from during the first century), Apostolic (particularly of five apostles), Augmentive (latter books building upon earlier material in a “progressive revelation”), Accepted (by the early church fathers onward), and Accurate (with a consistency in progressive revelation). In other words, three key terms for describing this would be apostolicity, catholicity, and orthodoxy.

Here are some eleven criteria historically used by the Church for the New Testament Canon:

1. Origin in the First Century AD (see Jude 3[39]) – The book had been written during the time of the New Testament, often referred to, as “The Second Temple Period of Judea.”

1. Apostolic Authority (see Ephesians 2:20; Acts 2:42) – Each of the 27 books of our New Testament canon is related to one of “The Apostolic Five”[40] – 

Matthew (also called Levi) for his Gospel of Matthew.

Peter for 1 and 2 Peter and under whose apostolic authority John Mark wrote The Gospel of Mark. 

Paul[41] for Romans through Philemon, and Hebrews [under Paul’s authority, if not dictation] and under whose apostolic authority Luke wrote The Gospel of Luke and The Acts of the Apostles. 

John for John, 1 & 2 & 3 John, Revelation. 

James (an apostle according to Mark 6:3; 1 Corinthians 15:7; Galatians2:9) for James and Jude (under James’ authority, where Jude is listed, as Judah, in Matthew 13:55, as brother of James). 

1. Circulation and Reception – The book was used in public reading and was recopied by the early church, all of which solidified its canonicity. (This important feature required the time of a couple of centuries to develop the concept of the canon.) Historically, it is notable that Christian writers[42] through 300 AD quoted from all 27 books of the NT canon. 

1. An Analogy of Faith (“A Comparison with The Faith”) – The books in the New Testament canon had to have a cohesive theology in a progressive revelation within itself (Romans 12:6).  Books in the canon would also be consistent with the Hebrew Old Testament canon, albeit with this added progressive revelation.  Truth is to be self-consistent and non-contradictory, so Old Testament canon was to be truth.  Although they had not been collected together in a group of 27 scrolls for some 200 years after their writing, the New Testament books had a consistency that was not necessarily influenced by each other.

1. Inspiration – The book should give evidence of divine inspiration, both internally and externally, 1 Corinthians 12:3,10; 2 Timothy 3:16-17 – Is it useful for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness?

1. Developmental References – Later books of the canon authenticated earlier books, such as Peter did in 2 Peter3:15-16 concerning Paul’s Letters, and as Paul did in 1 Timothy 5:18 quoting Deuteronomy 25:4, similarly, as Luke did in Luke 10:7 alluding to Deuteronomy 25:4.

1. Christ-Centered – The book would focus on Jesus Christ directly or indirectly with a consistent “doctrine of Christ” (as John wrote 2 John 9-11[43]).  In fact the Greek word for “canon” (kanōn – translated “rule” in the NKJV) is used in Galatians 6:16, “And as many as walk according to this rule, peace and mercy be upon them, and upon the Israel of God.”[44]

1. Language of Inspiration – The book was extant in Koine Greek which was considered the original language of inspiration.  The “Greek Priority” is the understanding that Koine Greek is the language of inspiration, so in our Greek New Testament we have the very words of Jesus and these five apostles.[45]

1. Authenticity above question among the Early Church Fathers – The book is quoted by Early Church Writers and lectionaries.  The early church writers had believed, “When in doubt, throw it out.”

1. Uncial Manuscripts – The book is in the earliest manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries (which would be Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Ephraemi Rescriptus) containing books represented in the canon.

1. The Muratorian Fragment – This ancient fragment was discovered by L. A. Muratori in 1740 in the Ambrosian Library in Milan details a listing of NT books (with a few missing: Heb., Jam., 1 & 2 Peter, and 2 & 3 John), [though adding Wisdom of Solomon and Shepherd of Hermas (with qualifications)].

1. The Fourth Century Church Councils – The Great Church Councils of Latakia in 336 AD and Laodicea (in Phrygia Pacatiana) in 363-364 AD specified the 26 books without Revelation.  The Councils of Rome under Damascus in 382 AD, Hippo I in 393 and 419 AD recognized what amounts to the 27 of our present day canon for the most part.  The Council of Carthage in 397 and 419 AD historically recognized the 27 books of the canon.

1. Early Versions and Translations – 

(1) The Old Syriac (200 AD) had all but 2 Peter; 2 & 3 John; Jude; & Revelation; 

(2) The Old Latin (200 AD) had all but 2 Peter; James; and Hebrews.

1. Personal Testimony – In reading through the canon and reading through books outside of the canon, a believer will sense and notice a difference. There is something special about the books of the NT canon.

So by about 400 AD, the church had come to accept and not question the canonicity of these 27 books.  Those from this era were closer to the original oral message of Jesus and the apostles and had less need for a fixed canon, but the church’s consensus on at least 20 has been firm since about 200 AD.[46]

So in a sense one could say that the Table of Contents in the Old and New Testaments was itself inspired for the 39 books of the Old Testament and 27 books for the New Testament.

The Apostolic Fathers

      The earliest group of Christian writings that have survived since the first two centuries, that were not a part of the New Testament canon are called, as a collective group, “The Apostolic Fathers” – these were basically written by the disciples of the apostles.  In a rather nice and brief description, J. B. Lightfoot noted, 

“Their style is loose; there is a want of arrangement in their topics and an absence of system in their teaching.  On the one hand they present a marked contrast to the depth and clearness of conception with which the several Apostolic writers place before us different aspects of the Gospel….  On the other [hand] they lack the scientific spirit which distinguished the fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, and enabled them to formulate the doctrines of the faith as a bulwark against lawless speculation.”[47]

R. M. Grant noted further, 

“Historically…the writings of the Apostolic Fathers are different from many New Testament books.  None of them, as far as we know, wrote a gospel or produced a treatise like Romans or Ephesians.  But the extent of the difference can be exaggerated.  The Apostolic Fathers were often concerned with practical problems to a degree greater than that reflected in the New Testament books.  They were not apostles like Paul, journeying through the Greco-Roman world in order to proclaim the gospel – though Ignatius provides a partial exception; they were entrusted with the less exciting, but sometimes more burdensome, task of ministering to congregations that the apostles had brought into existence.”[48]

The Apostolic Fathers generally contain the following 16 books:

1 Clement [The Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians] 

2 Clement [An Ancient Christian Sermon]

The Letters of Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, to – the Ephesians, the Magnesians, the Trallians, the Romans, the Philadelphians, the Smyrnaeans, and Polycarp.

Polycarp to the Philippians

Martyrdom of Polycarp

The Didache [The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles]

Epistle of Barnabas

Shepherd of Hermas

Epistle of Diognetus

Fragments of Papias

      These books are important in studying the church during the first couple centuries. They are not necessarily heretical, but they do not have the historical standing, authority, or canonicity of the New Testament books.  They are well worth reading by Christians who are interested in how the church developed beyond the New Testament in its early years.

New Testament Apocrypha

Beyond the New Testament canon and the Apostolic Fathers, there is a group of early Christian writings generally called the “New Testament Apocrypha” or New Testament Pseudepigrapha (“Falsely ascribed writings.”) These are writings that claim to be in the New Testament canonical era but are obviously much later.  These books did not “make the cut” because they were not written until long after the first century.  It is worth noting their names listed below; so, when someone brings up one of them, it can be noted that they may sound like something in the New Testament but are not.  Some have nice stories, while others are quite contrary to things in the New Testament. Most of them have been titled with biblical names.  Examples of this particular category of books[49] would be:

1. Pseudo-Jesus apocrypha – The Epistles of Jesus to Abgarus
2. Pseudo-apostolic (general) apocrypha – Epistle of the Apostles
3. Pseudo-apostolic (specific - by Apostle) apocrypha

Andrew – Acts of Andrew, Acts of Andrew and Matthias

Barnabas – Acts of Barnabas,          Epistle of Barnabas, Gospel of Barnabas

Bartholomew – Gospel of Bartholomew, Martyrdom of Bartholomew

James – Apocryphon of James, Book of James (protevangelium), First Apocalypse of James,  Second Apocalypse of James

John – Acts of John, Acts of John the Theologian, Apocryphon of John (long version), Book of John the Evangelist, Revelation of John the Theologian, 

Mark – Secret Gospel of Mark

Matthew – Acts & Martyrdom of St. Matthew the Apostle, The Martyrdom of Matthew

Nicodemus – Gospel (Acts) of Nicodemus (a.k.a. The Acts of Pontius Pilate)

Peter – Acts of Pete, Acts of Peter and Andrew, Apocalypse of Peter (Version 1), Apocalypse of Peter (Version 2), Gospel of Peter,  Letter of Peter to Philip

Philip – Acts of Philip         , Gospel of Philip

Thaddeus – Acts of Thaddeus (Epistles of Pontius Pilate), Teaching of Thaddeus

Thomas – Acts of Thomas, Apocalypse of Thomas           , Book of Thomas the Contender, Consummation of Thomas, Gospel of Thomas

Judas – The Gospel of Judas

1. Pseudo-Pauline apocrypha – Acts 29             Acts of Paul            Acts of Peter and Paul 

Acts of Paul and Thecla (see below)              Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena
Apocalypse of Paul                                         Apocalypse of Paul - other version
Epistle to the Laodiceans                                Revelation of Paul
Paul and Seneca 

1. Infancy Gospels apocrypha –

Arabic Infancy Gospel                                    First Infancy Gospel of Jesus Christ
Infancy Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew               Infancy Gospel of Thomas - Latin
Infancy Gospel of Thomas - Greek A            Infancy Gospel of Thomas - Greek B

1. Relatives of Jesus apocrypha –

Gospel of Mary                                               Gospel of the Nativity of Mary
Book of John concerning the Dormition of Mary (transitus mariæ)
History of Joseph the Carpenter                     Narrative of Joseph of Arimathaea

1. Sub-canonical (disputed canon) apocrypha - Gospel of the Lord (Marcion)
2.  Other significant Epistles and pseudomynous writings and apocrypha – 

Avenging of the Saviour                                 Epistles of Pontius Pilate
Letter of Aristeas                                            Sentences of the Sextus
Alexandrians                                                   Revelations of Stephen

1. Fragments of lost apocryphal books – 

Gospel of the Ebionites                                  Gospel of the Egyptians
Egerton Gospel (Egerton Papyrus 2)              Gospel of the Hebrews
Traditions of Mattias                                      Gospel of the Nazaraeans
Preaching of Peter

1. Apostolic Constitutions (Didascalia Apostolorum)
2. Psuedo-Sibylline Oracles

Various Biblical and Extra-Biblical Books

      In a sense it might be worth noting some comparisons between the material in and around the Old Testament and New Testament. A helpful parallel between the Old Testament and New Testament and these related writings might be seen in the following chart:

The Hebrew OT Canon 

& Early Writings

The Greek NT Canon 

& Early Writings

Notable Observations

The Torah – Books of Moses

The Prophets and the Writings

The Four Gospels and Acts

The Epistles and Revelation

Historical Foundational

Progressive revelation

The OT Apocrypha

The Apostolic Fathers

Uninspired but worth reading

The OT Pseudepigrapha

NT Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

Uninspired but somewhat interesting and entertaining to read

The canons of the Old Testament and New Testament come together, as a seamless robe of cloth.  If you pull one thread at one place, the cloth will buckle at another place.  How these canons came about could also be illustrated with, say, a natural rock monument.  Suppose in Washington, D.C., a group sought to build a natural rock monument with native stone from all fifty United States.  Each state contributed a typical uncut stone from within its borders.  These fifty stones were then shipped to a spot for assembly and uncrated, and miraculously all fifty stones with their various irregular shapes happen to fit precisely together in one monolithic monument with no crevasse to be found.  As the stones were assembled, one discovered that there was not one stone too many, not one stone too few. When completed, one then had a magnificently symmetrical monument.  The only explanation for this perfection is that there was a Master Architect who designed everything. In the same way, you cannot explain the unity of the Bible apart from divine inspiration.  That is how our 51 (or 66 by our English Bible’s count) separate canonical books (or scrolls) have come together to form our Bible.   The entire set of books has a unity of feel, purpose, truth, and theology. 

As to issue of whether the Canon of Scripture is closed with no more books to be added, It appears that about 400 BC with the prophecy of Malachi that God ceased any direct revelation until the coming of Christ.  The Jews over the centuries have never added anything to their Scripture, only histories and commentaries.  So, with The Book of Revelation in about 95 AD, as an Apocalyptic Capstone, the Church along these same lines has never added any further books, only histories and commentaries.

Textual Criticism:  The Autographs of the Bible 

Through Their Transmission to Extant Manuscripts

Beginning with the autographs for each given book of the Bible, God’s plan was to preserve them through the centuries, as one reads in Psalm 12:6-7, “The words of the LORD are pure, as silver purged in a furnace in the earth, refined sevenfold. You Yourself, LORD, will guard them.  You will preserve them from this generation to eternity.”  This process of “transmission” is the bridge between the autographs and extant manuscripts that we have existing today for us to examine and compare. 

Some seek to question the reliability of textual transmission.  After all, they may claim, it is common among humans in their fallen, sinful nature not to tell the whole truth.  But in our concept of biblical inerrancy we can see that any such “stretching of the truth” could and would have been tempered by the faithfulness of the people of faith through the centuries and by the omnipotence providence of God's Holy Spirit, so that what was written was accurate with the reality of the original autographs.  Unlike the illustration of the children’s “gossip game,” where the original story changes, a better illustration of textual transmission among the manuscripts would be found in our popular children fairy tales that stay much the same. Whenever someone might try to change something, he would never get away with it by telling his children about “Goldilocks and the Four Bears” or “Jack and the Cornstalk.”  So, as copies were copied and recopied moving out like “branches on a bush,” when one differed from the others, people would notice and discard such a copy, as being flawed.  Faithfulness was a part of the faith of Christian scribes.[50]  With Jesus’ resurrection being the capstone of the Gospel and the reason for the existence of Greek New Testament manuscripts, many of the 500 witnesses to His resurrection mentioned by Paul in 1 Corinthians 15:6 were still alive “to vet”[51] the first generation of copies of the autographs of the Greek New Testament scrolls written by Matthew, Peter, Paul, John, and James through the first centuries. By the time that they were deceased, enough copies were extant to begin to form a consensus of the text of each individual book.  So, as the recopying and recopying of generations of manuscripts progress through the early centuries, there was still a form of vetting that continued to “weed out” manuscripts with untraditional “odd wording” and to leave what is extant.

When we think about the process of this transmission, often two myths are worth noting, even though they are opposite in extremes:  Absolute Certainty in agreement and Total Despair.  It is true that textual critics and scholars cannot all know and agree with absolute certainty, as to the full wording of the autographs.  However, it can be asserted that one can actually know what the autograph did say, since among the multiplicity of extant manuscripts the original wording of the autographs does exist.  Thus, by one’s philosophy of textual criticism one seeks to find the best certainty available.  As for total despair God can and did make Himself well-understood through this multiplicity of extant manuscripts in the original language of the autographs, as copies of the autographs, and through the Principle of Perspicuity previously explained.

The exciting thing historically is that very old and recent copies of Hebrew Old Testament manuscripts and Greek New Testament manuscripts read remarkably the same with very little differences.  Changes in wording seldom crept in during the centuries of copying and recopying and recopying. 

The Extant Manuscripts of the Hebrew Tanach

The number of Hebrew manuscripts of the Tanach number to over 4,000 in Asia, North Africa, and Europe.  If you add the manuscripts and fragments from the Cairo Geniza discovery, the number could come to some 14,000.  Their dates range from the 2nd century BC to advent of the printing press in the 15th century AD.  Probably, the greatest discovery in this field is the Hebrew scrolls found in various places around the Dead Sea.  These scrolls from the caves of Qumran are thus commonly called The Dead Sea Scrolls and date from about 250BC to about 68AD.  They were discovered in 1947.  They have portions of all the Hebrew books of the Tanach except Esther and Nehemiah with the most valuable finds being an entire scroll of Isaiah (in Cave 1) and Habakkuk 1-2 with a commentary. and portions of all the Tanach except Esther & Nehemiah  Some of the scrolls have passages from the Septuagint (LXX).[52] 

The Text of the Tanach before Printed Editions

The Talmud:  Traditionally, the Talmud[53] is the supreme sourcebook of Law, as it takes the rules listed in the Torah and describes how to apply them to different circumstances.  Sometimes referred to as the Shas, the six orders of the Mishna, there are two distinct form of it: the Jerusalem or Palestinian Talmud and Babylonian Talmud (which has greater popularity and authority, so the generic term ‘Talmud’ almost always refers to the Babylonian).  The Talmud in Quidd. 30A describes the sopherim beginning with Ezra from about 500 BC to 100 AD who carefully copied and counted the words of the Torah and Tanach (much as indicated in Jeremiah 36). Some of the results of this period are found in Qumran with the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The Tannaim:  The Tannaim[54] were the transmitters and expanders of an extensive, oral, legal tradition, parts of which were codified in the Mishnah by Rabbi Judah HaNasi.  They recopied the Hebrew Tanach from about 10 AD to 220 AD.  This beginning period of the Talmud began a standardizing of the text of the Tanach, when they began developing very careful rules about copying and recopying from the time of Shammai and Hillel to the Mishna finalized under the supervision of Judah ha-Nasi in the 200’s  AD.  Sages[55] of this period of the Mishnah worked from the first century BC to about 200 AD.   Many statements of tannaim were included in another collection called the Tosefta, which is parallel to the Mishnah but explains it, expands upon it, amplifies it, and differs from it. There are also other collections of Tannaitic statements which have survived. Finally, many statements of the tannaim are preserved in the Gemara, quoted by rabbis of a later generation. Since the tannaim lived in Israel, their statements come to us mostly in Hebrew with some Greek loan words present.  Their words would be the subject of much discussion in succeeding centuries. Since they were founders of a sort in a new developing tradition in the interpretation of Torah, their words were to be considered weighty and authoritative. As a result, the next major group of sages, the amoraim, made great efforts to avoid disagreeing with the tannaim.

The Amoraim:[56]  These Amoraim worked from about 200 AD to 500 AD during the latter part of the Talmudic era and continued to refine the copying procedures with meticulous detail and exposition.  These Judaic scholars interpreted the Mishna and other Tannaitic writings.  There were two somewhat separate groups of amoraim, one group living in the land of Israel,[57] and one living in Babylonia.[58]   An amora who was from Babylonia would have been addressed by the title ‘Rav,’[59] while one who lived in Israel would have been called ‘Rabbi.’[60] The two groups shared some things in common. Aramaic was the international language in both places, so their statements are mostly in Aramaic, with much of the Hebrew quoted from the Mishnah and other Tannaitic sources mixed into it. The groups shared many traditions and had ongoing communication as scholars traveled back and forth over the course of the generations.

The Masoretes:   Scribe-scholars (called the Masoretes) from about 500 to 1000AD did the most in setting down the most traditional form for the Hebrew Tanach.  They were the bridge between the Hebrew text of the early church/synagogue and the printing press.  They devised the vowel notation system for Hebrew that is still widely used, as well as special symbols used for setting the Hebrew text to music. They also attempted to fix the pronunciation, paragraph and verse divisions of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, the Tanach, for the worldwide Jewish community. 

These scribes were very reverent and quite meticulous in the task of copying and recopying scripture.   They wrote at the end of each book very careful records of the number of verses, words, and letters in each book of the scripture, such as even the middle letter in the Pentateuch and in the whole Hebrew Bible.  Most manuscripts are from the Masoretic era.  The popular Hebrew text of the Tanach is often referred to, as The Masoretic Text. There are about a thousand full manuscripts of this Hebrew text of the Tanach. 

The Masoretes had an extremely high regard for the scripture and its precise, inspired wording.[61]  The Masoretic Text became the traditional, Rabbinic Hebrew Bible and was at times called the Textus Receptus of the Tanach.

Manuscripts of the Hebrew Tanach

The absolutely oldest copy that is extant of the Hebrew Tanach is a silver amulet, KH2 from Ketef Hinnom, which has survived dating from the mid-600’s BC and was found near Jerusalem with Hebrew inscriptions very similar to Numbers 6:22-27 with the wording – “May Yahweh bless you and keep you.  May Yahweh make His face to shine upon you and be gracious to you.  May Yahweh lift us His face upon you and give you peace.

The Nash Papyrus is dated about 150BC and contains The Ten Commandments. It was discovered in 1906.

The Murabba’at Manuscripts dated about 150BC were found in cave a little south of the Qumran where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. They contained fragments of biblical texts including Genesis, Deuteronomy and Isaiah, as well as the remains of some of the Hebrew Minor Prophets.  

The Dead Sea Scrolls have almost 400 texts of the Hebrew Tanach in various forms. One interesting note about the passage from Isaiah 53 in the Dead Sea Scroll below is that this passage picture is Isaiah 53:4-8 copied about 100 BC about Jesus fulfilling its prophecy in Matthew 8:17 about 27 AD.  In other words, when Isaiah prophesied this about Jesus somewhere around 700 BC, this manuscript existed with the prophecy wording around 100 BC over a century before it was fulfilled by Jesus.  Most every Hebrew manuscript containing Isaiah 53 was written after the fact of its fulfillment by Jesus.  However, this is an artifact of the wording of this prophecy that predates its fulfillment. No one could have come along and made the prophecy fits this event in Jesus’ ministry, since the words of the prophecy had been written and buried for some 19 centuries, during which Jesus fulfill them.

The text of the prophecy in Daniel 11:25-29 is among Dead Sea scrolls (specifically 4QDanc 114).  This prophecy was fulfilled by Antiochus Epiphanes IV in 167 BC. However, the copy of this passage in Daniel may be dated, as early as about 200 BC.  Something similar is found with Isaiah 9:1-2 found among the Dead Sea scrolls.  This messianic prophecy was fulfilled by Jesus in Matthew 4:13-16.  This is much like a teacher putting a number on several slips of paper and passing them out to students in a class.  Then, having someone walk into the classroom with a box of 50 balls all having the numbers 1 through 50 respectively on each of them. A student is asked to draw out a ball and finds on it #32.  Then, all the students open their slips of paper and discover that 32 is written on each slip of paper.

Manuscripts have been found at Masada dated about 70AD and have portions of five books.

Manuscripts have beene found at Nahal Hever and are dated about 130AD.  They have portions of three books and the Minor Prophets in Greek.

The Genizah Fragments from Cairo have been dated 400 to 1400 AD.

The Cairo Codex (895AD) is the oldest dated manuscript and contains The Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) & The Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, & The 12).

The Aleppo Codex (900AD) had the complete Hebrew Tanach but during the anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo about one-fourth of it was destroyed [Torah & Megilloth].  It was later lost and rediscovered in 1958.  Recently The Hebrew University in Jerusalem has published an edition of the Hebrew Bible based upon it with some reconstruction of the destroyed sections:

The Codex Leningradensis is the oldest, dated, complete Tanach and was recently 

renamed back to its earlier name, Babylonicus Petropalitanus [B 19A; L] (1008AD). 

It has been published, as a diplomatic edition.  It is the basis for Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia which is used in most all, if not all, modern translations. 

The British Museum has some 50 manuscripts of the Tanach and parts of the Tanach dating from 1100 to 1500 AD.

Printed Texts of the Hebrew Tanach

After the invention of movable type and the coming of the printing press, Hebrew Bibles were among the first to be printed:

1. The Rabbinic Bible by Jacob ben Chayyim of the text of the Tanach[62] became quite set and secure in its form. The most popular and traditional edition of this was The Second Edition of the Rabbinic Bible or The First Edition of Jacob ben Chayim’s Bible, published in Venice 1524-1525.  This edition of the Hebrew OT was used by the King James Version translators. Today, this “Textus Receptus of the Old Testament” is available in an edition originally published in 1894 and 1926 by David Ginsburg.
2. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia is a revision in 1977 of Kittel’s Biblia Hebraica, which is primarily based upon the Codex Leningradensis [aka, Babylonicus Petropalitanus – B 19A; L] dated about 1008AD.  This is the Hebrew text used by all English translations in the last quarter of the 20th century and into the 21st century.
3. The Keter [Crown] of Jerusalem: The Bible of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem [Hebrew] was published in 2004 and based primarily upon the Aleppo Codex and related manuscripts.

In addition to these various Hebrew manuscripts of the Tanach, there is an early form of the Hebrew Bible called The Samaritan Pentateuch.  This is the Hebrew text of just the Books of Moses, that dates back to about 200 BC and have continued in the Samaritan community of Nablus (ancient Shechem). It is a form of the Hebrew Torah text that has come down through the centuries outside of the Masoretic Text tradition and differs from it in about 6,000 places which are mostly minor.

The Targums[63] are another source of information about the Hebrew text.  They are Aramaic paraphrases and commentaries of the Hebrew Old Testament text whose extant manuscripts date from the second through the fifteenth centuries AD.

The Septuagint is the ancient Koine Greek translation of Tanach dating from about 200 to 100 BC.  Major portions of it can be found in the great uncial manuscripts of Aleph [א], A, B, and C dating 325 to 450 AD.  The Septuagint originally was an early Koine Greek translation of the Pentateuch, but the term has generally been applied to the later translation of the rest of the Hebrew Tanach and even some other early Jewish apocryphal writings.  Traditionally, it was done in Alexandria, Egypt. 

As to English translations of the Septuagint, Brenton’s[64] English translations date from the 1850’s.  However, a group of Greek Orthodox Church scholars have translated and published an English translation called The Orthodox Study Bible:  Old Testament Project for Bible study among Orthodox Christians.[65]  Further, The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies composed of Protestant and Roman Catholic and Orthodox scholars has also translated and published NETS – The New English Translation of the Septuagint.[66]  A Greek-English Interlinear of the Septuagint is also available, as The Apostolic Bible Polyglot, ed. by Charles Van der Pool.[67]

he Extant Manuscripts of the Greek New Testament

The Greek New Testament in its autographs was written during the days of the Book of Acts through about 95 AD.  Individual letters were circulated, such as was described in Colossians 4:16. Peter had considered Paul’s letters Scriptures in 2 Peter 3:15-16.  By 100 to 150 AD, letters and scrolls were collected and combined into groups and by 200 AD were in a book-form called a “codex.”  Prior to the codex, we have extant almost 120 papyrii copies of the Greek New Testament.  It is nice to see that they are quite consistent with each other during this era and match well in wording with our later printed texts.

In comparing of extant manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, one will find how they have very much the same wording.  Each manuscript will have different variants, but by comparing them in their multiplicity one will find a pattern of wording that is common to most of them.  Then variants can be noted and discarded, if necessary, although at times some variants can be understood, as a commentary, rather than “adding to the text.”  It is this common pattern of wording that replicates the autograph.  Someone could rightfully ask, “Why are the autographs not extant?” or “Why do we not still have the autographs around today?”  First of all, their original material upon which they were written could not have lasted these two millennia.  Second, people would have a tendency to venerate the autographs in an idolatrous way, as religious relics.  Third, with any single autograph-manuscript it would be difficult to prove that no alterations have been made during the almost two millennia of their existence. Fourth, within the multitude of copies that have been made from the single autograph there is safety.  Accurate, faithful copies were made and kept safe and faithfully recopied.  In other words, by not preserving the autograph, we are able in a safer way to preserve the wording of the autography within its multitude of copies.  Fifth, among extant copies of various portions or the whole of the Greek New Testament no single copy exists, as an exact duplication any autograph, but our authentic copies are a reliable replication of the original autograph.  Within this multiplicity of extant replications of the autograph exists a safe duplication of the original autograph of the Greek New Testament.  But this duplication must be and can be determined by careful principles of textual criticism.  Thus, the 5800 copies of complete or fragmented copies of the Greek New Testament stand as a wonderful and safe repository of its original autograph.  In fact it is interesting to note that the term, “witness,” is used in reference to extant biblical manuscripts, in that each one serves as a witness to the autograph.  Some of these witnesses are related (as a close copy of another extant manuscript), but many of these witnesses are independent witnesses and would have the same weight, as multiple independent witnesses would on a crime scene.

The Great Uncial Manuscripts are from the 4th century.  It was during this 4th century and later that the Byzantine monks continued to make careful copies of manuscripts, copies that have survived until this present day, along with other monks as far as in Ireland.

Copies have been made by hand (up until the printing press about 1500 AD) and been found all over the world.  With the coming of printed copies of the Greek New Testament, the form of the text become quite set and secure. 

It is interesting to compare what is extant among manuscripts for the New Testament, in contrast to extant manuscripts of other ancient writers. What is available for study today is as follows:

      Writers (date of writing)         Number           Earliest mss.            The Gap between

Plato                                        20 mss.            900AD             1300 yrs.

Thucydides (460-400 BC)       8 mss.              900AD             1300 yrs.

Aristotle                                  5 mss.              1100AD             1400 yrs.

Sophocles                                100 mss.          1000AD             1300 yrs.

Herodotus                               8 mss.              900AD             1300 yrs.

Julius Caesar   (58-50 BC)      10 mss.            900AD             1000 yrs.

Livy (17AD)                           20 mss.            400AD             400 yrs.

Tacitus (100 AD)                    2 mss.              800 AD             700 yrs.

New Testament (40-95 AD)  5800 mss.    125-400AD   40 to 300 yrs.

In addition to these 5,700 Greek New Testament manuscripts, we also have some 10,000 Latin New Testament manuscripts, along with some 9,300 manuscripts of earlier versions (such as, Syriac, Coptic, Armenean, Gothic, Ethiopic, etc.)  So, as a sum total, there are extant some 24,000 manuscript- copies of the New Testament plus some 86,000 quotations from the early church fathers and several thousand Lectionaries.  Now, not all of these manuscripts are a complete New Testament. Some are, but many are just a book or so, and many are fragments of a chapter or a few verses.

The ancient Greek New Testament manuscripts fall into four groups:

1. Papyrii (50-600AD) – 119 in number.[68]

Chester Beatty Collection: Old Testament and New Testament fragments found in a Coptic cemetery in Egypt in 1931 and now at Beatty Museum in Dublin, Ireland, and Univ. of Michigan.

John Rylands Library: In Manchester, England, NT mss. fragments from the 200’s AD, especially P52 dated about 125 AD has John 18:31-33, 37-38.

Bodmer Collection: At the Bodmer Library of World Literature in Cologny (a suburb of Geneva) of some of the earliest copies of Luke and John.

1. Uncial (50-600, and even up to 950AD) – 22 in number – All capital letters in a continuous script without spaces with little to no punctuation.
2. Miniscule (800-1450AD) – some 2754 in number – Cursive (or “running lines”), upper-case and lower-case script with spaces between words. [Manuscript  #2322 at The University of Texas at Austin (designated miniscule manuscript HRC#24) contains The Gospels written about in 1200 AD.]

John 18:37-38 in Papyrus 52 -

[Letters in red are visible on the fragment; letters in black are reconstructed]

Therefore Pilate said to him, “Then you are a king?” 

Jesus answered, “You say that I am a king. 

For this I was born, and for this I have come into the world: to witness to the truth. Everyone 

   who belongs to the truth hears my voice.” 

Pilate said to him, “What is truth?” After he had 

       said this, he went 

out to the Judeans again, and he told them, “I find no crime in him.”

Some important and ancient Uncials and their Discovery:

1. Codex Sinaiticus [Codex Aleph] – Count Konstantin von Tischendorf was a brilliant 19th century German scholar, becoming a full professor at the age of 26.  In the spring of 1844 on a trip in the Sinai at the Greek Orthodox monastery of St. Catherin he was showing a steward his recently published copy of the LXX.  The steward said that he also had a copy of the LXX and showed him a heap of loose vellum leaves wrapped in a cloth of a very ancient copy of the LXX along with almost a complete copy of the New Testament.  Some 14 years later he was able to have them sent to Moscow.  Later the Russian Communist government sold it to England for £100,000.  It dates back to about 350 AD.

1. Codex Vaticanus [Codex B] – This uncial dates back to about 325-350 AD (perhaps among the copies commissioned by Constantine) it was sent to Rome about 1448 under Pope Nicolas V and has been in the Vatican library since 1475 or 1481.  Later Napoleon took it to Paris but upon his death, it was returned to the Vatican. Samuel P. Tregelles (who was an English friend of Tishendorf) applied for permission to see it in 1843 and 1845. Under guard he would spend some six hours a day reading and memorizing parts of it and then go back to his room and copy what he had memorized.  In 1867 he published his edition of it.  Later the Vatican relented, and Pope Pius XI had a better copy of it published in 1868.

1. Codex Alexandrinus [Codex A] – This text of the Greek New Testament dates back to about 450 AD in Alexandria, Egypt.  Cyril Lucar, the patricarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, sent it in 1621 to Constantinople.   In 1627 it was given to King Charles I of England.

1. Ephraemi Rescriptus [Codex C] – This dates back to the 400’s AD.  Catherine de Medici like the sermons of Father Ephraem the Syrian and had a large library of his sermons in the French National Library in Paris.  In 1834 a student noticed some indentations, and in 1841 Constantin von Tischendorf began to decipher it and publish it.  Through some further chemical treatment it has become more readable and was found to be an early uncial manuscript of the Greek New Testament.

1. Bezae [Codex D] – This bilingual uncial was written about 500 AD, in Greek and Latin parallel columns.  It contains the Gospels, Acts, and a short fragment of 3 John. Theodore Beza, successor to John Calvin at Geneva, found it in 1581 at Lyons, France.

Along with these papyri and uncials and miniscule manuscripts there are other sources of text from the Greek New Testament:

1. Lectionaries – These are some 70 various Bible lessons and service documents in the Greek Orthodox church dating from 800 to 1500 AD.  They would be somewhat similar to our hymnals’ “Responsive Readings.”
2. Quotations from early Greek and Latin Christian writers from the 2nd through the 6th century have enough wording to almost put together a text of the New Testament in Greek and Latin. These are quotations from the Apostolic Fathers, Origen, Eusebius, John Chrysostom, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Polycarp, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Bede, Tertullian, and many others.
3. Ancient Versions/Translations – There are surviving copies of translations of the Greek New Testament into Latin, Syriac (Aramaic), Coptic, Gothic, Aramenian, Ethiopic, Georgian, Nubian, etc.
4. The Diatessaron – Tatian wrote an early harmony of the Gospels that has survived in part.

From the textual editing of all of this material there have been many printed texts of the Greek New Testament published and used in biblical study and various English translations.  Basically, the three most popular edited texts of the Greek New Testament used by various translators are The Traditional, Majority Text and The Textus Receptus and The Eclectic Text 

1. The Traditional, Majority Text, sometimes called The Byzantine-Majority Text – This text of the Greek New Testament by Majority-text school holds that the best text replicating the autographs is based upon the wording of the Majority of Greek New Testament manuscripts, i.e. over 90% in general, along with carefully examining each manuscript’s individual reliability.  The text is from the mainstream Greek New Testament that believers, throughout the centuries who have read the New Testament in Greek have believed providentially to be the actual New Testament.  It has an extensive “paper trail” of manuscripts and is similar to the traditional text of the Byzantine/Greek Orthodox Church[69] (who at times calls it their “Textus Receptus.”)  This textual philosophy believes that in general copyists had more of a tendency to accidentally skip words or verses than to add words or verses. The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text[70] edited by Zane Hodges and Arthur Farstad was published in 1985 using the Majority Text philosophy in textual criticism of the Greek New Testament.  The New Testament in the Original Greek[71] edited by Maurice Robinson and published by Chilton Publishers in 2005 and 2018 is the best and most recent edition of the Greek NT based upon the Byzantine/Majority text philosophy in textual criticism

An English translation of this Greek New Testament text can be found in the World English Bible (WEB) that is available only on the internet and is the only English translation of the Majority Text New Testament.  However, The New King James Version New Testament also has an English translation of the Majority Text Greek New Testament within it footnotes in the Center Chain References.  The NKJV has in the New Testament important variants among the Greek New Testament manuscripts and identifies them as “M” and “NU” – “Majority Text” and “Nestle/United Bible Society [Text]” respectively.  The NU is the Eclectic Text described below.  The translators of the New Testament of the NKJV used The Textus Receptus described below. So, if one incorporates the notes of the reading of the “M” footnotes into the NKJV English translation’s text, as to adds” or “omits” such and such words, then one will have a good English translation of The Majority Text of the Greek New Testament.  [On the other hand, if one incorporates the notes of the reading of the “NU” footnotes, then one will have an English translation similar to The New American Standard Version or The English Standard Version.]

1. The Textus Receptus of the Western European Reformation era – What is popularly called “The Textus Receptus”[72] was first edited and published by Erasmus in 1516 and Stephanus (Robert Estienne) in 1546-1551 and Beza in 1598 and most recently by F. H. A. Scrivener in 1894, as the Stephanus Textus Receptus.  It was used in the renewed interest of the study of the Greek New Testament in Europe, and thus became the “fuel” for the fire of the Reformation. It has been popularized and published by The Trinitarian Bible Society.   It was based upon about half a dozen miniscule manuscripts[73] from the 11th-15th century and more fell together than was edited.

Beza’s edition of this was used by the King James Version and other Reformation era translations. Scrivener’s edition was used by the Webster Bible (1833), Young’s Literal Translation (1862-1898), New King James Version, Defined King James Bible, King James Version II (= The Literal Translation of the Holy Bible), King James for the 21st Century, King James 2000, Modern King James Version & Interlinear New Testament by Jay Green, Revised Webster Bible (1998), and The Third Millennium Bible. 

This Reformation-era edition of the Greek New Testament is most popular among the “KJV-Only” Bible students.  It is similar to the Majority Text but is based upon a limited number of Greek NT manuscripts, as opposed to a majority of them. Most early translations in other languages in Europe and Asia used this text for their New Testament.[74]

1. The Eclectic[75] Text popularized by Westcott-Hort, Nestle-Aland, and The United Bible Society – This textual philosophy considers that the oldest manuscripts are the best.  The two most popular text of this form is Nestle-Aland’s Novum Testamentum Graece edited by Eberhard and Erwin Nestle and Barbara and Kurt Aland and The Greek New Testament edited and published by the United Bible Societies.  These two eclectic editions are presently published with the same Greek text.  The apparatus-footnotes in The Greek New Testament list only about 1500 variants but with much detail, as to the manuscripts; where the apparatus-footnotes in Novum Testamentum Graece list more than three times the number of variants with more limited details, as to the manuscripts.  However, this latter in its 28th edition does have listed the readings of the Majority Text in its footnotes, so that one can use it to find a form of the Majority Text in these references.  Most every English translation uses this text for its translation of the NT, except for the KJV, NKJV, World English Bible, and Green’s Interlinear, although the NKJV does follow this text though its NU[76] footnotes of variant readings.  This Eclectic school believes that older manuscripts are better, in that copyists had a tendency to add words and verses and to alter the text to smooth out the wording in latter manuscripts.  They believe that conclusive conjectures can be made, as to explaining how these various copyists caused the variant readings differing from the autograph’s reading, in an effort to find the wording in the autographs.  This approach can be summed up in two principles:  (1) Choose the reading that best explains the origin of the competing variants; (2) Choose the variant that the author is more/most likely to have written.  This first principle seeks to be objective, although little attention is paid to the source of the variants, as to their weight, quality, manuscript tradition, and credibility.  The second principle can be quite subjective, in that advocates of this Eclectic school try to analyze the thinking of these copyists.  They do this from their historical point of view but may not be able to see and understand how these copyists actually recopied scripture.  A sad, net result is that such critics, as these, can come to a point that one can never be sure that the autographs can never be duplicated or replicated today. 

In general the Textus Receptus is a fuller text than the Majority text which in turn is a fuller text than the Eclectic text.  In other words, the Greek text of the Eclectic Text is smaller (with fewer verses and words) than the Greek text of the Majority Text, which is smaller than the Greek text of the Textus Receptus.  So, in comparison The Eclectic Text usually omits more words and phrases than the Majority Text which usually omits words and phrases more than the Textus Receptus.   One would grant that the issue of omission of words or phrases or verses would be less problematic than additions to or alterations of words or phrases or verses in the autographs.

Another interesting observation is that the Greet text’s wording in the Majority Text are closer to the Greek text’s wording in the Textus Receptus text for Matthew through Jude than there are to the Eclectic Text.  However, in the Greek text of Revelation the Majority Text is much more similar to the Eclectic Text than it is to the Textus Receptus. One can observe this by noting the textual notes in the New Testament of the New King James Version, where its use of the Textus Receptus has it that most of the textual variants in the textual notes for Matthew through Jude involve alternate wording or omitted wording for “N-U” of the Eclectic Text with only a few for “M” of the Majority Text.  But in Revelation this is reversed:  The Majority Text and Eclectic Text are much closer to each other than they are to the Textus Receptus used for the NKJV.  Thus, most of the textual notes in Revelation involved alternate wording or omitted wording with “N-U and M” together in contrast with the wording in the Textus Receptus used by the NKJV translators for the entire New Testament including Revelation.

If God's omniscient providence was to carefully protect accurate copies of the autographs of His Greek New Testament for the millions and millions of Christians over the past almost 20 centuries, then the majority of those who could read Greek would have a "majority form of the text" preserved in the Majority Text. Thus, to recap one can well argue that the Majority Text[77] duplicates the autographs because:

1. God has preserved His word for all believers to study in Greek through the almost 20 centuries of the Christian church in the majority of Greek NT manuscripts. There is a “paper-trail” of Byzantine readings from among the papyri in the 2nd century through the Uncial manuscripts and among the majority of the Miniscule manuscripts.[78]  The Byzantine text is supported by the early versions: the Syriac (or Aramaic) and Latin versions; the Peshitta and the Gothic. Some of these go back to the mid-second century. 
2. The early Church Fathers generally quote repeatedly form the Majority Text, that is The Byzantine Text: Justin Martyr (100-165 AD), Irenaeus (130-200), Clement of Alexandria (150-215 AD), Tertullian (160-220 AD), Hippolytus (170-235 AD) and even Origen (185-254 AD).
3. The best and most accurate manuscripts would have been the ones that were used and trusted and recopied the most and would have worn out the quickest. 
4. Often, the Eclectic Text approach tries to “second guess” what the copyists thought and did.  Editors of this text often assume that copyists were more likely to add words not in their original copy than to take away any words in the scripture; thus, when two manuscripts differ, the shorter reading is preferred.  However, diligent scribes with a respect for God’s Word are more likely to miss copying something (i.e. by skipping a line, etc.) than to make up a line to add in. 
5. When a scribe had a choice of manuscripts to copy, he would normally copy the one that he trusted the most, thus causing the most trusted text to be copied more often.
6. Different scribes copying the same passage are not all likely to make the same mistake at the same place, even though some mistakes are likely to be copied over many times.
7. The early proponents in the Eclectic Text philosophy often had a scholarly animosity toward the Textus Receptus in what would appear to be a somewhat rebellious attitude toward tradition and a form of gnostic pride stemming recent discoveries of “earlier and better manuscripts.”
8. The Eclectic Text philosophy has a subtle belief that the autographs were rather well duplicated through the first three centuries after the first century but somewhat disappeared until the 1880’s.[79] 

An interesting parallel might be made in the textual criticism of the Old and New Testaments.  In Ancient times, among copyists of the Hebrew Old Testament, the Masorites had meticulous methods of recopying the text.  Among copyists of the Greek New Testament, though little was done in any kind of scientific, critical method, the copyists of the Greek New Testament had a high regard for scripture and a devotional care in their craft.

In a parallel with the Eclectic Text school, recently during the past century, editors of scholarly, popular editions of the Hebrew Tanach through the 20th century have used the eclectic-text method that relied on the oldest full manuscript, B19a Leningrad, along with having a weighed influence with Dead Sea Scrolls and the Aleppo Manuscript.  However, there is an interesting parallel that can be made between Jacob ben Chayyim’s traditional Second Edition of the Rabbinic Bible of the Hebrew Tanach and the Byzantine Majority Text of the Greek New Testament.

How would one get an English translation of the Majority-Text Greek New Testament?

As noted above, the World English Bible is an English translation of the Majority Text New Testament.  However, The New King James Version in the New Testament is the most popular and easiest form to use. Within its NT footnotes in the Center Chain References, one finds “M” and “NU” footnotes. Simply, incorporate the notes of the reading of the “M” footnotes into the NKJV English translation’s text, as to adds” or “omits” such and such words, and ignore the “NU” footnotes, then one will have a good English translation of The Majority Text of the Greek New Testament. 

Translations of the Bible

There are three considerations that need to be made about a translation of the Bible.  One should consider:

1. The original-language Text used, such as for the Hebrew Old Testament (The traditional Rabbinic Bible edited by Ben Chayyim or the Biblica Hebraica Studgartensia) and for the Greek New Testament (the Textus Receptus or the Majority Text or the Nestle/United Bible Society texts)
2. The translation procedure, whether literal or idiomatic.
3. The target language and audience, whether for general reading or detailed Bible study and with general or limited English comprehension.

The picture in translations then is the three original (or source languages) of the Bible and one target language.  For our interest in the target language of English, it is very nice and convenient that the three source-languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek are all within the same Indo-European family, as English, and have various cognate words and similar grammatical forms which allow for easier translation.

But why so many translations?

Every translation is an explanation in another language of what the text says, and so in a sense a translation could be called “a commentary.”  No one English translation is 100% and final in conveying the original language’s meaning in a text.  There is an old Italian proverb about the nature of translation: “Traddutori traditori” – meaning simply, “Translators [are] traitors!” Another Italian dictum expresses a similar sentiment: “All translation is a polite lie!”  A literal translation may be awkward, misleading and unclear for some, while an interpretive paraphrase may teach something contrary to what some have learned in the original language text.  Most Bible teachers and preacher in a class or pulpit will read a Bible passage in a literal translation but will then explain the passage in their own interpretive paraphrase. 

The Jewish poet Hayyim Nachman Bialik explained it, “He who reads the Bible in translation is like a man who kisses his bride through a veil.”[80]  In a sense this is true, but as MacGregor retorted in his Literary History of the Bible, “Still, when a veil there must be, the translator’s task is to make it as gossamer-fine a veil as may be. Indeed, the face of even the most beautiful of women may be enhanced by a veil, if only the veil be worthy of her beauty.”[81] Indeed, a translation is a “mini-commentary” giving insight into the text.

In a way, a translation is like comparing a black-and-white television to a color television, where English translations, like a black-and-white TV, can help one see whatever God has for us to see, but a text in its original Hebrew or Aramaic or Greek language, like a color television, can offer much detail in a concise way.  Good commentaries and other Bible study tools can clarify these details. 

The purpose of a translation is to facilitate communication while being faithful to the original text.  In some cases, that means translating gender specific biblical language into generic language in English.

Contrary to English, many languages, both Hebrew and Greek included, have grammatical gender. That is, there is no way to make a sentence or use certain verb forms without using grammatical gender. All verbs in the second and third persons in Hebrew must be either masculine or feminine.  It has little to do with physical gender; it is just a grammatical feature of the language.  While Greek has a “neuter” grammatical gender, it is not normally used when referring to people.  It is used more for abstract matters.  Usually the “default” grammatical gender in most languages is masculine. This is called “the generic use of the masculine.”  Hebrew has no “neuter” gender, so everything must either be either masculine or feminine.  All Hebrew nouns and pronouns also have grammatical gender, so all sentences in Hebrew are gender specific grammatically.  Again, largely, because of culture, the “default” gender is masculine, when there is no specific reason to use feminine forms or words or when there is a mixed gender group (either physical gender or nouns with grammatical gender).

Early Translations/Versions.

      The Old Greek Version is commonly referred to as the Septuagint, which originally was used for the Greek translation of the Pentateuch only.    This translation of the Hebrew Old Testament began about 200 BC with the Pentateuch and continued on to about 100 BC.

The Old Latin Version has some 150 fragments from 180 to 366 AD, but it is the Latin Vulgate (translated from the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament by Jerome from 383 to 405 AD that became the standard Latin by commission of Pope Damasus I).

The Coptic Version was popular in the early Church in Egypt during the third century., 

The Old Syriac Versions came along about about 300 AD, but it was the Syriac/Aramaic Peshitta of about 400 AD that became popular in the early Syriac Church.[82]

The Gothic Version by Ulfilas came along about 400 AD. 

Other early versions of note are:  The Armenian Version (in the early 400’s AD), The Georgian Version (in the mid 400’s AD), The Ethiopic Version (about 500 AD), The Old Slavonic Version (in the 800’s AD), and The Arabic Version (in early 900’s AD).

The First Printed Editions of the Greek New Testament

The printing and mass availability of the New Testament in Greek became foundational for the European Protestant Reformation.  The first Bible printed by Gutenberg with his movable type was the Latin Vulgate.  The first Greek NT was printed in 1516 by Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam.  Luther used his second edition of 1519 and William Tyndale used his third edition of 1522 for their German and English translations respectively.  After him, Robert Stephanus printed four editions of which the fourth edition was used by the KJV translators.

Early English versions

Caedmon was an English cowherder about 678 AD who was the first in English with stories from Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel.  The next notable translator was the Venerable Bede who was a monk of Jarrow and the Father of English History.  He in the early 700’s translated portions of the Bible and died dictating his English translation of John from the Latin Vulgate.  Later, King Alfred the Great in the latter 800’s AD put Exodus 20-23 and Acts 15:23-29 into Old English.   However, the first actual translation of the Bible into English was done by John Wycliffe in 1382 who first translated The Latin Vulgate into English. 

In 1409 an English law was passed against the Lollards (disciples of Wycliffe) forbidding any use of the Bible that was not in Latin.  Earlier in 1407 Thomas Arundel had drafted the orthodox position to vernacular Scriptures, arguing that language is idiomatic and that the vernacular cannot be trusted to render the meaning of Scripture faithfully. Arundel’s Oxford Constitutions (formally issued in 1409) enforced, as statutory law, official opposition to vernacular Scripture; in this view, Scriptural meaning is not open to all languages, and the literal sense is not adequate, as an indicator of divine truths. 

Later, William Tyndale Bible translated the New Testament in 1526 and the Pentateuch in 1530 and Jonah in 1531.  Miles Coverdale finished his work with The Coverdale Bible in 1535.  But to translate and print his English New Testament, Tyndale had to leave England under threat of the English king and go to Wittenberg, Germany, (Luther’s town) then to Cologne, then to Worms.  Printed copies were smuggled into England and then purchased by the King’s funds for four times their cost in order to have them burned.  In fact, 90% of his Bibles ended up being burned.  With an English price on his head and in cloak-and-dagger disguise, he moved to Marburg and studied Hebrew, then to Hamburg, then to Antwerp, where Henry Phillips, a supposed student of the new faith, befriended him and then betrayed him to some kidnappers, while out dining, May 21, 1535.  A year later he was burned at the stake with his famous last words, “Lord, open the king of England’s eyes.”  Only 4 copies of his first editions exist today.

Later came The Thomas Matthew Bible (1537), The Great Bible,[83] The Geneva Bible,[84]The Bishops’ Bible (Matthew Parker under Queen Elizabeth I in 1568), and The Bible: Douay-Rheims Version.[85]

The Authorized, King James Version of the Bible

The King James Version[86] is the most well-known and popular English version of the English Bible.  Originally translated in 1611, the commonly used edition of the King James Version is the 1769 edition in which English spelling had been standardized.  For example, in the original King James Version “Jesus” is spelled “Ieſvs” as it was in English of 1611. 

As to their original texts, it is a quite literal translation of the British Stephanus Textus Receptus in the New Testament and Jacob ben Chayim’s Second Rabbinic Bible in the Old Testament. They did, however, translate the books of the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin texts and place them in between the Old and New Testaments, though later it became more popular to publish this translation in editions omitting the Apocrypha.  As to their philosophy of literal translation, they had much the same approach, as previous generations, so some 80% of their translation was much like the wording in Tyndale’s translation. 

In England, French and Latin were the language of serious study in the 14th through 16th centuries, however during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I England rose to international power and had some very famous literary figures, such as the most memorable among them, William Shakespeare. It was during this Elizabethan era of the 1500’s that the modern English language developed with its eventual dominance among European and world languages to our day.  So King James I had an extremely rich form of English into which to translate the Hebrew/Aramaic Old Testament and Koine Greek New Testament.  King James[87] had an understanding of these languages and, most importantly, a discernment of scholars of his day who knew these languages and the Bible well.  One will note that Psalm 46 in the King James Version has, as its 46th word from the beginning and its 46th from the end, two words commemorating a literary figure who had just turned 46 in 1611.  Yes, one will find the words, “shake” and “spear” – William Shakespeare was 46.[88]

Amid the King James suspicious origin and auspicious history and stories,[89] it has been the most influential book in the English language in all of English history.  One should be mindful of keeping an 18th century English dictionary close, so to speak, in reading and interpreting it.  The translators were very learned scholars in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin.  In fact, their familiarity with the Latin Vulgate and their form of English inadvertently comes through in their translation.  Their English had such a Latin influence, such that they translated the Greek word for “conduct” (anastrophe), as “conversation,”[90] since the Latin Vulgate had conversatio.  Their translation of “prevent” for the Greek word for “precede” (phthanō) in 1 Thessalonians 5:15 reflects their word in English influenced by the Latin Vugates praevĕnīo.[91]  In John 10:16, where the New King James has “fold”[92] for aulē and “flock”[93] for poimnē, the King James Version translators have “fold” in both places, just at the Latin Vulgate has ovile in both places.  Similarly in Matthew 28:19-20, where the New King James Version has “make disciples” for matētĕuō and “teach” for didaskō, the King James Translators have “teach” for both verses, since the Latin Vulgate has dŏceō in both verses, too.   In their recognition of the literary classic of 1 Corinthians 13 about love, they chose the word, “charity,” as a poetic high-level word.  However, where the Latin Vulgate has agapē, as caritas, this English cognate of the word seemed well to them.

In Psalm 29:6 and 92:10 they have the translation of “unicorn” where the Latin Vulgate has unicornis.  So, a little knowledge of Latin helps in reading their translation.  Also, they use the standard translation of LORD used for God’s Holy Name of YHWH[94] (often transliterated, as Yahweh or Jehovah). The translators used “prince” in translating some 14 different Hebrew words in the Old Testament. 

The beauty and grandeur of the literary style of the King James Version are obvious, though its 17th-18th century English is somewhat difficult for most modern English readers.  But its thundering diction and rhythm of wording have withstood the test of time.[95] 

Guidelines for Using Various Translations and Study Bibles

Why make a translation? 

So believers can read and know their Bible.  Ezra did this in Nehemiah 8:8, as he translated Moses’ Torah from Hebrew into Aramaic.  The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek which was a universal language in the first century church.  The Alexandrian Jews did this abound 200 BC in translating the Torah from Hebrew into Koine Greek.  The Latin Christians had many who translated the Bible into Latin from the 2nd through 4th centuries among the Old Latin translations, until Jerome did the Latin Vulgate around 400 AD.   The same is true for Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Gothic, Ethiopic, and Arabic.   It is important to note that the Bible is multi-lingual itself and quite “translatable” by God’s design and intent.  We can study the language, culture, history, and geo-politics of the biblical eras and know what was meant, so as to translate what it means.  Any concept can be expressed in any language, using the natural linguistic resources of that language. The translation of a concept will often have a different number of words from what it had in the original text, because all languages differ in their vocabulary and how their words relate to each other in syntax.

Why are there various and so many translations? 

For the same reason that there are various and so many preachers and Bible teachers, as God has given them to the Church (Ephesians 4:11).  Throughout the centuries, many of them have committed themselves to study of the Bible in their original languages to fulfill their God-given ministry, as had Ezra.  However, many needed and relied on mostly direct, literal translations in the language in which they were ministering.  The meaning of the terms – translation, version, paraphrase, interpretation, and commentary – blend in with one another with little or no hard lines drawn between them semantically.  Most preachers will read a biblical passage from usually a literal translation and then explain it often with paraphrasing much as Kenneth Taylor did in his Living Bible.  Often, it is practical for a pastor to have a literal or direct translation from which to begin his sermon, so that those in the pew may have the same one in which to follow.

Who is qualified to be a translator? 

This is a spectrum of various, continuing degrees from a Bible student using a Strong’s concordance and interlinear translations to a preacher with much or little or no formal training in biblical languages to a scholar asked by a publisher in a group or individually to submit a translation for publication (or even a student of biblical languages offering a translation on an internet website.)  As for a published translation, like any commentary, the reader must be discerning to find the translator(s) knowing: 1) the original language well and honestly, 2) the Bible and the God of the Bible personally, 3) the readers’ language clearly and well and how to communicate.

What about a translation by a group versus an individual? 

A group-translation produced by a committee-consensus and edited by English stylists and publishers offers what the Bible describes in Proverbs11:14, as “in the multitude of counselors there is safety.”  This may help to avoid blind spots, idiosyncrasies, imbalances, and sectarianisms of one individual. This was the case for such popular translations as the King James Version, the New King James Version, the New Revised Standard Version, the New International Version, and most others.  On the other hand, a published translation by an individual may have a clear, forthright, and even bold way of wording the translation that might be toned-down or simplified by an English stylist or “balanced” by the popularizing tendency of a translation-group.  Some examples of such a translation are those by Wuest, Weymouth, Moffatt, Goodspeed, Knox, and Phillips.

Why is there need for various and recent translations? 

Languages change, as to their word-meanings, grammar, and idioms, such as where the King James Version’s use of “prevent” in 1 Thessalonians 4:15 meant “precede” in 1611 but almost the opposite today.  Further, translators’ understanding of the biblical languages, text-criticism, history, and culture of the Biblical texts has improved and is improving for making for clearer and more accurate translations.  The “picture” to be found in the original language texts of the Bible is becoming sharper and more “colored” but not necessarily different nor altered nor corrected from what believers through the centuries have understood of “the faith once delivered over to the saints” (Jude 3).  It is nice to have a translation not sound like a translation but to have the Bible’s wording sound like any other good, natural speech or writing in that language. While a word-for-word translation does not necessarily increase accuracy but can, in fact, reduce accuracy at times. A thought-for-thought translation does not necessarily increase accuracy, if the translator inserts his or her ideas which are not in the meaning of the original text.  But a word-for-word literal translation does allow the Bible in study to reference back to wording in the original language of the biblical text in English with a one-to-one correspondence of a word used to translate the original word or grammar structure in English used to translate a grammar structure in the original language.

As more and more believers read and study a published translation over the years and years or even generations, one can have more confidence in its solidity and accuracy.

Original Language Texts and Translations

In the examining of a copy of the Bible in translation, one needs to note its original language text, its translation philosophy, and its target language, and whether it was translated by an individual or committee. 

1. Popular original language texts used in: 

The Hebrew Old Testament –          

1. Jacob ben Chayyim’s traditional, Second Edition of the Rabbinic Bible was used in the King James Version and most early ones up to about 1900.
2. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia edited by E. Elliger and W. Rudolph, revising the earlier edition of  Biblia Hebraica edited by R. Kittel and based on the Leningrad Manuscript B 19a and used in most all translations since 1900.
3. The Keter Yerushalayim - The Jerusalem Crown Bible based, the oldest known complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, the Aleppo Manuscript.[96]  This codex is the oldest known complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. It is a text of the famous grammarian and scribe Aaron ben Asher who inserted the vocalization signs, accentuation marks and the Masorah.  Because he also proofread the manuscript several times over, it became the authoritative text due to its accepted accuracy.[97]
4. Some Pre-Masoretic Text, such as the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, the Dead Sea scrolls, the Aramaic Peshitta, etc.

The Greek New Testament –            

1. The Eclectic Text of Nestle/Aland which is presently the same as that of United Bible Society.[98]
2. The traditional Byzantine or Majority Text, such as those edited by Farstad and Hodges, or Maurice Robinson, or Wilbur N. Pickering.
3. The Textus Receptus of the European Reformation era, such as those edited by Erasmus, Stephanus, etc.

1. Translation philosophy:

Translation is at best a very difficult task and never 100%. Various judgment-calls, compromises, and interpretations will always occur.  The issue is the “otherness” of the Scripture, in that the events and the autographs of the Bible in another world than what one often finds in translating. Is this “otherness” a matter of language differences or a matter of God’s thoughts and ways being higher than our thoughts and ways?  What are the important matters of the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages in their semantic, grammatical, and cultural “patchwork quilts”[99] of thinking and words versus the matters of transcultural truths of God that are understandable in any language.  The translator will need to leave these transcultural truths translated and then decide on how to deal with the original language issues by a direct translation with footnotes and commentary or by finding approximate, corresponding things in English without footnotes and commentary.  In general translators try to seek accuracy and clarity along with a natural style of English.  The original, intended audience and readers of the text have ideas, understandings, and even feelings, all of which the translators are trying to duplicate in the thinking of the English readers.  Of course, translators also try to be on their guard, so as not to artificially color the translation with their own cultural and linguistic background or bias by reading ideas into the text that should not be there.[100]  Their cultural and linguistic background is essential in their use of their target language.

1. Interlinear – Next to each word in a printed original language text is a corresponding English word in a form of “wooden translation.” In the New Testament, for example English words are used in Greek sentence structures.
2. Literal or “Direct” or Essentially Literal Translation – Formal Equivalency is an approach of this form of translating that seeks to help the reader experience the original metaphors, euphemisms, and other features which are unique to the Bible’s original languages with a focus to the forms of the original (source) languages and less attention to the corresponding natural forms of the translation (target) language.  So the reader understands that this is a translation and that he needs somewhat to study Bible’s cultural background and original languages, albeit in his own language.  Formal Equivalence uses this correspondence of overlapping semantic and syntactical fields between the source and target languages.  It leaves some interpretation to the reader.  It is a word-for-word translation that seeks to have an English word (or as few words as possible) for each word in the original language text, while preserving the structure of the original language sentence and even any intentional difficulties or ambiguities found in the original language-texts. The resolving of these ambiguities is left to the reader.  Even though it allows the reader to be much closer to the original language text, it may often be more difficult to read. At places words in the translation take on semantic influences of their corresponding words in the source language of the text translated. For example in the New Testament, the English translation “love” takes on the meaning of the Greek word, agape, the English word “hope” takes on the idea of anticipation, the English word, “faith,” takes on the Greek idea of “faithfulness.”   The New King James Version and New American Standard Version used this approach.
3. Dynamic Equivalence or “Functional” Equivalence – Choosing English idioms that mirror original language idioms, as thought-for-thought, rather word-for-word.  It is a “thought-for-thought” translation that tries to find and use an English idiom in the form of a word, phrase, or entire sentence that corresponds to the wording in the original language in an effort to make it more readable.  It, thus, involves the translator using more interpretation in the translation in effort to discern only the words of the author but also the author’s intent and meaning.  The semantic fields of the corresponding source-language words. An example of this would be the New International Version.
4. Optimal Equivalence – a translation that seeks to find a carefully studied balance between the literal (or direct or formal equivalence) translation and the dynamic (or functional equivalence) translation, where the translators begin with a literal translation and go to a dynamic approach, where it seems to be necessary. Examples of this would be the New English Bible and Christian Standard Version.
5. Target-language – English styled – Where English language readers do not see it as a translation but apparently originally composed in English. An example of this would be the Today’s English Version (Good News Bible).
6. General Paraphrase or “Free Translation” – Paraphrases go somewhat further than a “thought-for-thought” translation in that it is more of a “sentence-for-sentence” process to make it easier for English readers to read.  One could think of it, as a very concise commentary or “mini-commentary.” An example of this would be The Living Bible and The New Living Translation.
7. Interpretive Paraphrase – Totally free for the translator(s) to convey in English what they see that the original language text means and is trying to communicate, somewhat in the form of a running commentary. It also often involves an attempt to contextualize the biblical text from its original cultural and language into English (American) cultural and language and to eliminate the historical distance between the times of the Bible and the times of the reader.  An example of this would be The Message by Eugene Peterson.

1. Special Translation Items:

Translators of the Hebrew Old Testament are often challenged how to translate God’s holy name “YHWH” called the “Tetragrammaton,”[101]  It is a common tradition, such as in the King James Version to translate it LORD [in all capital letters], as a four-letter word in English corresponding, perhaps, to “Adonai” in Hebrew.  God’s name can be transliterated:   Yahweh or Yahveh or Jehovah.

Regarding punctuation, the autographs in the Bible had no punctuation.  So what we find in translations is something added for better understanding by the translators.

Monetary terms may be left in original language terms and simply transliterated or Anglicized or put in a modern equivalent and even adjusted for inflation.

A given translation may focus on the purpose of general reading or on the purpose of detailed Bible Study or on use of a limited English vocabulary.

Some popular, published translations of the Bible are based upon a theological interest.  The ideal of Bible study is to begin with the cultural and historical meaning of the wording of the Bible in an original language study, then develop the theological meaning from there.  But presuppositions are difficult to avoid.  Every student of biblical languages has his or her own translation based upon a limited flexibility of connecting the wording of the original language text with the wording of a translation based on his or her judgment-call in contrast to the translation based on another student’s judgment-call.

A Partial List of Popular, Published Translations:

1. New King James Version (NKJV) – This is a revision of the King James Version in 1982 in literal translation for called Formal Equivalency.  It is a translation of the Text Receptus in the New Testament with footnotes about alternate readings in the Majority Text (= M footnotes) and in the Eclectic Text of Nestle and the United Bible Society (= NU footnotes) and the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in the Old Testament.  If one incorporates these M footnotes into the New Testament translation, one has an English translation of the Majority Text.  By intent its English is a combination of 18th and 20th century English.  It is also interesting to note that Grupo Nelson has published a Spanish-English bilingual Bible in parallel columns called Biblia Bilingüe Versión Reina-Valera 1960 Bilingual Bible New King James Version which offers almost a “one-to-one” wording-correspondence between the two texts, in that in the New Testament they both used the Textus Receptus and both have a very similar philosophy of literal translation.[102]
2. New American Standard Bible, Updated 1995 (NASV, 95) – This is a popular, Evangelical, rather literal translation somewhat like Formal Equivalency.  It is a translation of the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in the Old Testament and Nestle-Aland’s Novum Testamentum Graece in the New Testament.
3. Literal Translation of the Holy Bible by Robert Young – A very “wooden” literal translation of the traditional Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament which has much the same word for a particular original language word with a similar sentence structure.
4. Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB) – This is a somewhat literal translation by LifeWay publications, a ministry of Southern Baptist.  It offers some interesting English alternative translations of original language terms within their semantic range in comparison with the NKJV and NASB.  It makes a very nice parallel to a rather standard translation. It uses the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in the Old Testament and Nestle-Aland’s Novum Testamentum Graece in the New Testament.
5. Christian Standard Bible (CSB) – This is a 2017 revision of the Holman Christian Standard Bible. It generally has verses found in the Textual Receptus used by the NKJV with rather “neutral” textual notes, so that it seems to less critical of the Majority Text of the Greek New Testament and Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Old Testament.
6. English Standard Version (ESV) – This is a conservative Evangelical response to the New International Version.
7. New International Version (NIV) – This is a very popular dynamic/functional equivalence translation using the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in the Old Testament and Nestle-Aland’s  Novum Testamentum Graece in the New Testament.
8. New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) – This is the most popular, standard, widely-used Protestant somewhat literal translation using an eclectic original-language text. 
9. New English Bible (NEB) – This dynamic/functional equivalence translation is quite British in its English and at times even paraphrasing.
10. Today’s English Version (TEV) – Good News for Modern Man or Good News Bible (GNB) – This simple English translation was intended with an initial focus audience of ESL readers (i.e., English as a Second Language).
11. Amplified Version (Ampl.) – This extended translation in a sense is a nice “mini-commentary” that translations a word or phrase and then at times adds other words and phrases in parentheses and brackets for further clarification.
12. The Jerusalem Bible (JB) – This English translation in 1966 was based upon the Roman Catholic French version La Bible de Jérusalem.
13. The Bible: Douay-Rheims Version – This first English translation from the Latin Vulgate has become the traditional Roman Catholic translation.
14. New American Bible (NAB) – This Roman Catholic translation by Romans Catholic scholars did have a few Protestant scholars.  But in contrast to using the Latin Vulgate, they used the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament and Greek Septuagint Apocrypha and published with the Vatican’s imprimatur approval.
15. The Orthodox Study Bible – A pastoral translation of the Septuagint with Orthodox Church doctrinal notes.  The New Testament is the New King James Version which has “M” footnotes giving the readings of the Greek New Testament according to the Byzantine Text, called The Majority Text in the NKJV.  This is the traditional Greek New Testament text of the Greek Orthodox Church. 
16. World English Bible (WEB) – This is available only on the internet and is the only English translation of the Majority Text New Testament.
17. International Standard Version (ISV) – An Evangelical, somewhat literal translation
18. Complete Jewish Bible – This translation by David Stern is a Jewish New Testament publication.  It uses literal translations of Hebrew names in both the Old and New Testaments and gives Messianic, Jewish way of translating the New Testament.
19. The Original New Testament: A Radical Translation and Reinterpretation – This translation by Hugh J. Schonfield has his liberal, Jewish perspective in it.[103]

Some Popular Paraphrased Versions

1. Living Bible (LB) – This is a paraphrase of the American Standard Version (1901) by Kenneth Taylor, a journalist and father, who primarily wanted a paraphrased form to read to his children to help them understand the Bible.
2. New Living Translation (NLT) – A scholarly group of translators revised Kenneth Taylor’s popular Living Bible and retained his paraphrase approach.  As such one could see this, as a “mini-commentary.”
3. The New Testament in Modern English – A paraphrase of the NT translated by J. B. Phillips – He brings in his interpretation of 1 John 5:17 where a believer can sin and lose his salvation.  In his trying to translate and interpret 1 Corinthians 14:22, he deletes the word, “not,” with no textual reason.
4. The Message – by Eugene Peterson – More paraphrasing than the The Living Bible with Peterson’s theology used in this interpretive paraphrase.  He alters Paul’s teaching of foreknowledge and predestination in Rom. 8:30-31 by making foreknowledge and predestination focus on what God did and not for whom God did what He did.  In Acts 13:48, he puts “eternal life” as “real life.” In 1 Corinthians 14:22 he explains how tongues are something for unbelievers to “gawk at” rather than being for a sign to Jewish unbelievers (which misses the point of v.21).  In Rom. 1:16 he took “not ashamed” and turned into “most proud.”

Some Popular Individual Translations:

1. The New Testament: An Expanded Translation by Kenneth Wuest – This is a text of the translations found in his New Testament commentary, Word Studies in the Greek New Testament.  It is a very nice translation by an individual who knew and taught New Testament Greek at the Moody Bible Institute and used Greek word-order, noting synonyms and Greek verb tenses with paragraphs enabling the reader to grasp the logical units of thought.
2. The New Testament in Modern Speech:  An Idiomatic Translation into Every-day English from the Text of the Resultant Greek Testament by Richard F. Weymouth, 1929 – Dr. Weymouth took great care in paying attention to the Greek grammar in translating the Greek New Testament into English.
3. A New Translation of the Bible by James Moffett (1926) – James Moffet’s scholarly translation is readable and took some liberties in the order of the books and text with his somewhat liberal understanding of textual criticism.
4. The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments, translated [very] literally from the Original Tongues – Julia Evelina Smith in 1876 translated and published this version at the age of 84.
5. The Centenary Translation: The New Testament in Modern English – This is an individual translation by Helen Barrett Montgomery. 
6. The New Testament in Modern English – This is a colorful, readable paraphrase by J. B. Philips, that does reflect some of his theology, such as in 1 John 5:16-17 and with odd textual philosophy at 1 Corinthians 14:22.
7. The Cotton Patch Version by Clarence Jordan – The Cotton Patch Version of Matthew and John…Luke and Acts…Paul’s Epistles…Hebrews and the General Epistles[104] – This is a colloquial modern translation with a humorous Southern accent by Clarence Jordan with a Ph.D. in NT Greek. (He did not paraphrase Mark and chapters 9-22 of John and doubted that it would be possible successfully to “cotton patch” the book of Revelation.) 

Some Versions with a Jewish-focus:

1. The Keter Crown Bible – This English translation was published in 2000 by the Chorev Press that set it in a bilingual edition with the Hebrew text of Keter Yerushalayim - The Jerusalem Crown Bible[105] upon which it was based, the oldest known complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible.      This English translation is a revised Jewish translation of the Old Testament into English by Harold Fisch.
2. Complete Jewish Bible (CJB) – This is a dynamic English translation by David H. Stern specifically using Jewish vocabulary and names along with a Messianic interpretation.
3. Tanakh by the Jewish Publication Society, 1999 – A popular, Jewish English translation of the Old Testament by somewhat liberal Jewish scholars.
4. Orthodox Jewish Bible, translated by Phillip Goble - Goble's translation is loaded with Yinglish (Yiddish and English vocabulary).  It appears as though Goble translated it for the very religious Ashkenazi segment of the Jewish population. This translation will not appeal to all (Messianic Jews included), but for those with the prerequisite background it should prove to be a welcome addition to anyone's collection. 

Two published translations outside of orthodox Christianity are: 

1. The New World Translation (NWT) – An odd, anonymous-committee translation by the Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Watch Tower publishing organization with very questionable translations of John 1:1-2, 18; 8:58; 10:33; Col. 1:16-17; Acts 13:48; Rom. 9:5; Job 19:25-26; Isaiah 48:16; Tit. 2:13; Phil. 2:6; 2 Peter 1:1. 
2. The Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, also called the Inspired Version of the Bible or the JST, is an odd, Mormon version of the Bible dictated by Joseph Smith, Jr. The work is the King James Version of the Bible with some significant additions, clarifications, and revisions of his.

There have also been some so-called, “Immersionists Translations.” Translators often try to find an English word whose semantic range fits with the same as the original language word, or at least to have the contextual meaning of an original language word to fit within the English word.  However, the Greek word, baptisma and baptizō, matches the semantic field of immersion/immerse.  On the other hand, the English word, “baptism/baptize,” possesses the semantic fields of “sprinkling, laving, and pouring,” which the Greek words, baptisma and baptizō, do not possess.[106] So to some degree “baptism and baptize” can be considered a mistranslation…but a “politically correct” one that avoids misinformed criticism from certain denominations within the Church.  However, there have been some eight published and distributed translations of the New Testament that have avoided “baptism/baptize” and used immersion/immerse:

1. New Testament, London, by Nathaniel Scarlett, 1798.
2. The New Testament of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. the Common English Version, the American Bible Union, New York. Second Revision, 1865; B.C. Goodpasture, Nashville, Tenn., 1955.
3. The New Testament: American Bible Union Version, 1866 and revised in 1885.
4. The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testament; Translated Literally from the Original Tongues by Julia Smith, 1876.
5. The New Testament, revised by A.S. Worrell, Baptist publication, 1904.
6. The Christian’s Bible…New Testament, by George LeFevre, 1928.
7. The Original New Testament: A Radical Translation and Reinterpretation by Hugh J. Schonfield. 1985.
8. Complete Jewish Bible, translated by David Stern, 1998, Jewish New Testament Publications, Clarksville, Maryland.

As for popular, traditional Bible Translations in other languages, in Spanish there are the Reina Valera of 1960 and Reina Valera Revised of 1995.[107]

In French is the French translation by Louis Segond who was a Swiss theologian that translated the Bible from the original texts in Hebrew and Greek.  He was born in Plainpalais, near Geneva. After studying theology in Geneva, Strasbourg and Bonn, he was pastor of the Geneva National Church in Chêne-Bourgeries, then from 1872, Professor of Old Testament in Geneva.  The translation of the Old Testament, commissioned by the Vénérable Compagnie des Pasteurs de Genève, was published in two volumes in 1871 (Meusel has 1874 as the publication date), followed by the New Testament, translated as a private venture, in 1880.

The Jerusalem Bible is a translation of the Bible developed under the direction of the Biblical and Archaeological School of Jerusalem French. « Réalisée par les meilleurs spécialistes des études bibliques , elle est actuellement la plus répandue en France et fait figure de « classique » [ 1 ] .Produced by the best specialists in biblical studies, it is currently the most widespread in France and is a “classic”. "[1].Étant, un ouvrage collectif, elle tombe dans le domaine publique en France, 70 ans après sa date de première publication. As a collective work, it fell into the public domain in France 70 years after its date of first publication. La bible de Jérusalem, publiée en 1953 en un volume unique, sera donc dans le domaine public le 1er janvier 2024. The bible of Jerusalem, published in 1953 in a single volume, and will be in the public domain on 1 January 2024.

As to a picture one might consider a “Spectrum” of Translation Philosophy and place these such:

Word-by-Word           Direct or          Functional or        Idiomatic or        General        Interpretive

Interlinear                   Literal             Dynamic Equiv.   English styled     Paraphrase­­_ Paraphrase

NIV Interlinear OT

NKJV Interlinear NT

Green’s Interlinear Bible

Fox’s The Five Books 

     of Moses

                                    KJV

                                    NKJV

                                    NASB(95)

                                    RSV

                                    NRSV

                                    Amplified

                                    (NWT)

                                                             ESV

                                                             ISV

                                                             NAB

                                                             CSB

                                                             NIV

                                                             Weymouth

                                                                                                New Jerus. Bible

                                                                                                NEB

                                                                                                Good News/TEV

                                                                                                CEV

        Wuest

                                                                                                                                 Living Bible

                                                                                                                                 NLT

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Phillips

                                                                                                                                      Cotton Patch 

                                                                                                                                      The Message

Some Bible translations have a particular, targeted purpose:

A Targeted Use:

1. Church in Worship – This would be a “liturgical” translation with wording intended for corporate reading aloud in a worship service.
2. Detailed Bible Study – This would be a Study Bible translation with wording in a literal translation intended for exegetical, analytical study in English with reference to the original languages.
3. Popular reading – This would be a cultural translation in a dynamic equivalence for general reading, especially by those that will not have any opportunity of detailed, exegetical Bible study.

A Targeted Group:

Age – The reading-level may be targeted for children, adolescents, young adults, adults, e.g., LB, NIV-child, 

Education – The educational, reading level may be targeted for Simple English, 5th grade level (NIV), 8th grade level (NKJV), or 12th grade level (KJV) grade level.

English Culture – These would be a translation in American English, such as in the ASV & NASV, and a translation in British English, such as in the NEV.

ESL – Those with English as a Second Language have translations in a simpler form of English, such as GNB.

Era of English – Tyndale’s 16th cent., KJV’s 17th & 18th cent., NASV’s 20th century, and NKJV’s 18th through 20th century Testament.

Americans in the US South – The Cotton Patch Version by Clarence Jordan 

Braille – The Beginner's Bible: A Twin Vision Bible designed for children under the age of six.[108]

A Targeted Theological Intent:

Protestant/Evangelical – King James Version, New King James Versopm, Today’s English Version, Christian Standard Version, New International Version, English Standard Version (ecumenically approved by Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants] – NEB, RSV, NRSV

Roman Catholic – Douay-Rheims translation, 

New American Bible

The Jerusalem Bible 

Eastern Orthodox – The Orthodox Study Bible: LXX & NT of the NKJV.[109]

Jewish – Tanakh (1999), Jewish Study Bible (Conservative/Reformed Jewish),

The Original New Testament: A Radical Translation and Reinterpretation[110]

Orthodox Jewish Bible, Complete Jewish Bible (Messianic), 

The Keter Crown Bible, 

A Targeted Gender-inclusive language:

The New Testament and Psalms:  An Inclusive Version (It notes that “woman” in 1 Timothy 2:12 may be referring only to one’s wife), Today’s New International Version. Any generic used of the masculine is proper in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and English.

One’s personal purpose will help in deciding a translation with which one seeks to use in memorizing biblical verses and passages. A rather literal translation, such as the NKJV, NASB, NRSV, offer a consistency in wording.  With an interest in detailed analysis and exegesis in teaching and preaching, these same translation would do well with a general one-to-one correspondence of the original language’s word with the English translation’s word.  In addition, various expanded translations, such as by Wuest or various paraphrase-translations offer an expansion in such studies.  With a focus on personal reading through extended sections, a dynamic translation or paraphrase, such as the NIV, LB, the Message, in order to have it sound, as though the text was originally composed in English.

Misconceptions about Translations and Translating:

“A literal translation involves no interpretation.” – But a very literal translation can be inaccurate at places.  This is where the translators must interpret the text in English.

“Only one translation is right and accurate where all others are wrong.” – The semantic range of a word in the original language can have two or more English words which may be found in different translations.  The process of translation requires the translator to interpret the text into English with his or her judgment necessary in the process.

“A translation can be just as inspired, as was the Bible in its original language.” – The process of writing of the Bible was inspired, but anyone with an adequate knowledge of the original languages, inspired or not, can render a translation and even publish it.

“All translations are equally correct.” – Obviously, when two translations of the same passage are different, they may be equally close, or one more accurate or correct than the other, since their wording is not the same.

“One can only truly understand the Bible in its original languages.” – The Bible is very “translatable.”  So much can be studied and is known about the languages and history and cultures in which the Bible was written, so that translators have all that is needed with enough wording in the target language to communicate God’s Word. God wants all people to understand Him.

“The Bible can be translated and interpreted in various ways, in that its various and sundry translations mean that no one can really know what the Bible says.” – This is a popular smoke screen which says, if all cannot be correct, then none is correct.  God did not “mumble” but was able to make Himself quite clear in the Bible.[111]  It is true that some translations are better than others, as to conveying the original language ideas.

“When two translations are different for the some passage or word, one must be wrong.” – Not necessarily, where the original language idea may be in between the two translations that together may give a better picture.  This is where “parallel” translation editions of the Bible are so helpful.

“It is wrong and improper for a preacher or teacher to translate the Bible in his or her preaching and teaching.” – Bible teachers have done this for centuries since the first century for the New Testament and before then for the Old Testament, as Ezra did in Nehemiah 8:8.

“Having various translations of the Bible only brings confusion to Bible study.” – Without understanding of translation theory and practice, this may appear to be the case.  However there are various good, faithful and accurate translators and translations.  Bible translations in parallel editions are nice and helpful.  Any translation is in a way like a commentary.  So what one would apply to seeing and understanding commentaries for studying the Bible would also be applicable for translations.

“The Bible must be in the esoteric language of God and religion and not in a common, colloquial vernacular of everyday life to be the Real Bible.” – But Wycliffe, Tyndale, Luther, and the King James Version translators did seek to put the Bible in a colloquial vernacular for the people of their day, as it was originally inspired.  We need to do this for the people of our day.  It is worth noting that the original languages of the Bible were not necessarily the literary form of the language but more the everyday form of the language.

“There are so many variations in wording in existing manuscripts.” – Variants involve only a small percent of the text.  One’s textual criticism philosophy is important here.

“The original languages of the Bible are so ancient and different that we today cannot understand them enough to know what the Bible really says.  They are very different than English is today.  So we can never understand the ancient culture and ancient history of the events in the Bible and its writing enough to know what the Bible really says and means.  Some words are only used once, where their meaning cannot be actually known.” – The Bible is an historical record in very well-known languages.  Greater study has been made about the history, cultures, and languages of the Bible than of any other piece of historical literature. One can be confident that God has allowed us to know these ancient languages very well.

“The autographs are all lost.  All that is left are copies of copies of copies etc., so much that we can never know what was in the autographs.” – Within the multiplicity of manuscripts in the original languages and early versions, God has preserved the autographs.  They can be replicated in an edited text.

“The most accurate manuscripts were found only within the last 200 years, so earlier believers did not have good and accurate copies of the Bible in its original languages.” – According to the traditional Masoretic textform philosophy of the Hebrew Old Testament and Majority/Byzantine textform philosophy of the Greek New Testament, much has been more clearly understood within the past 200 years, but these two texts are ones that have been read and studied by believers all through the centuries since the biblical era.

Practical suggestions for using various translations of the Bible

Read the preface to see how the translator(s) approached the translation task. Find what Hebrew Old Testament text and Greek New Testament text were used.  For example in the Old Testament most translators up until about 1900 used Jacob ben Chayim’s Second Rabbinic Bible  and in the New Testament they used the British Stephanus Textus Receptus. Since then most translators have used some form of the Biblia Hebraica in the Old Testament and of the Nestle text in the New Testament.  Only a few, such as the translators of the New King James Version have used the earlier original language texts.   The             Majority Text was used by the translators of  The WEB Bible and the NKJV Interlinear Bible. 

Decide, if you want to read (1) a smooth, comfortable English text with built-in commentary but with few footnotes, and a translation that sounds as though it was originally written in English, OR (2) a readable English text with very little commentary and often with much footnoting, sounding as though it may have been originally written in another language.  A dynamic or functional equivalent translation would be your choice for the first one.  A literal or direct translation would be your choice for the second one.  The key is understanding the balance.  All translations have their judgment-calls, as to this balance.

Note how the text is formatted and footnoted.  Poetic passages can be easily noted and read, as the text is printed in poetic form.  A “paragraphed” format shows the flow of ideas together within a paragraph and how the book is divided into paragraphs, in contrast to the “verse” format that has “chopped up” the paragraph, although it is intended for ease in looking up a referenced verse.  Note any translation footnotes in that they are helpful in explaining variant readings, alternate translations of original language words or phrases, or language explanations.  Note any doctrinal footnotes in that they can be helpful but for the most part are interpretative and at time sectarian.  Note any reference footnotes, as in a center-chain reference edition, which can be helpful in comparing one scripture with another by listing related verses. The Bible often interprets itself. This is very helpful in the interpretation of a passage, as well as in topic study.

In detailed, even exegetical, Bible study with commentaries and other tools, a literal or direct translation allows you to easily go back to the original language word or words corresponding to the English word or phrase. In reading through a passage at length, a dynamic or functional equivalent translation would offer a clearer “big picture” of the passage.

Note any cultural, archaic or theological biases (such as issues about fornication, homosexuality, etc.)  A translation done for British readers may not be understood the same way by American readers, and vise versa.  Look up passages that you have studied well, and see what the translators have done.  Note the publisher and listing of translators, as to their beliefs.

Parallel translations (of two) and multiple translations (of up to eight)[112] will offer the reader, at a glance, various ways the passage can be translated. 

Note any traditional theological vocabulary. Many theological terms used in the Bible have no accurate English translations. Therefore, many Bibles have chosen to adopt terms such as justification, sanctification and redemption directly from the Scriptures. 

Note any capitalized nouns and pronouns. Some Bibles choose to capitalize nouns and pronouns that refer to any member of the Trinity, although this is an added judgment-call and interpretation on the part of the translators, since this is not specified in the original languages. This does make it easier to understand whether such words refer to God or to someone else.

Note any words of Christ in red. Some Bibles use red ink for the words of Christ to make it easy to identify when He speaks. Some insist on this feature, but others believe that it reduces the perceived importance of the rest of the words of the text. 

Note any headers. Many Bibles use descriptive headers at the beginning of each chapter or even throughout chapters to allow readers to identify important sections. Headers are added by translators or editors and are subject to being fallible. The doctrinal emphases of the editors or translators will show through these headers which can cause problems.

Note any cross-references. Many Bibles cross-reference passages, so that a particular verse may have a note directing the reader to a similar verse in a different passage. Cross references are very helpful and are often listed in the center between the two columns of the translation.

Look up particular passages that you have study in much detail and see how they are interpreted.

In Summary:

Our Bible is:

1. Found in a very large number of multiple, extant copies, as manuscripts.
2. Intertwined in the for warp-and-woof of human history.
3. Written down and recopied and recopied.
4. Historically and factually reliable.
5. Written in well understood ancient languages.
6. Quite translatable.
7. Accounts by eyewitnesses written during the lifetime of other eyewitnesses.
8. Involving a moral code.
9. Containing specific events and locales in human history and geography.
10. A record of predicted events in history, that have come to past and some yet to come.
11. Describing supernatural events.
12. Claiming to be supernaturally inspired.

Some practical reference tools for Bible Study: 

1. Nice Study Bible: 

The New King James Version Study Bible (2nd edition)[113]

MacArthur Study Bible, NKJV, edited by John MacArthur[114]

Thompson Chain Reference, NKJV[115]

Ryrie Study Bible – NASV (Expanded), 

The New Scofield Reference Bible NKJV or Scofield Study System, NKJV

Discovery Study Bible

Life Application Study Bible

Reformation Study Bible[116]

1. Parallel Versions: 

Evangelical Parallel New Testament [ESV, HCSB, The Message, NLT, NIV, NKJV, NCV, TNIV]; 

The Complete Parallel Bible (Oxford University Press, New York, 1993) [NRSV, REB, NAB, NJB]; 

The Precise parallel New Testament (Oxford Univesity Press, 1995) [Greek NT, KJV, Douay-Rheims, AB, NIV, NRSV, NAB, NASB]; 

The Contemporary Parallel New Testament [KJV, NASB 1995-update, NCV, CEV, NIV, NLT, NKJV, The Message]; and 

The Word: The Bible from 26 Translations by Curtis Vaughan (Editor)[117]

1. Interlinear Bible translations:[118]

The Interlinear Bible: Hebrew-Greek-English by Jay Patrick, Sr. Green (editor, translator)[119]

The Interlinear NIV Hebrew-English Old Testament[120]

The Majority Text Greek-English Interlinear New Testament, also called in a later edition The NKJV Greek-English Interlinear New Testament by Arthur L. Farstad, Zane C. Hodges (editors)[121] and in a later edition, The NKJV Greek-English Interlinear New Testament by Zane C. Hodges, Moss, Picirilli and Pickering, Arthur Farstad (translator)[122]

1. Bible Dictionaries:[123]  

Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary edited by Ronald F. Youngblood[124] 

Nelson's Compact Series: Compact Bible Dictionary by Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison[125] 

Holman’s Illustrated Bible Dictionary[126] 

The New Unger's Bible Dictionary by Merrill F. Unger & R. K. Harrison[127]

Concise Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming[128]

The Eerdman’s Bible Dictionary edited by Allen C. Myers[129]

The New Bible Dictionary[130]

1. Bible Encyclopedias:

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (ISBE)

Zondervan Pictorial Bible Encyclopedia (ZPBE),

The Anchor Bible Dictionary

1. Concordances: 

Strong's Complete Word Study Concordance, Expanded Edition--Book and CD-ROM, edited by Warren Baker[131]

Strongest Strong’s Concordance, KJV (with the updated Greek and Hebrew Dictionaries) 

Exhaustive Concordance New King James Version

1. Theological Dictionary:

Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (One-Volume Edition), by R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., Bruce K. Waltke[132]

New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology by Verlyn D. Verbrugge.

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (in one volume) by Kittel, Friedrich, and Bromiley.[133]

1. Bible Atlas: 

Hammond’s Atlas of the Bible Lands

The MacMillan Bible Atlas (Revised Edition) by Yohanan Aharoni and Michael Avi-Yonah

Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Places, edited by John J. Bimson

1. Elementary Biblical Language Study:

Greek for the Rest of Us, Mastering Bible Study without Mastering Biblical Languages by William Mounce (including a chapter on Hebrew grammar)

1. Some Further Word Study:
   1. The Sentence in its original Language – An analysis of the parsing of each word in its original language of inspiration with its semantic analysis in its background, development, and usage and its syntactical relationship to the other words in the flow-of-thought and grammatical diagramming.

BDAG – Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Edited and revised, free pdf available at:

https://www.agathonlibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/BDAG-A-Greek-English-Lexicon-of-the-New-Testament-and-Other-Early-Christian-Literature-Walter-Bauer-Frederick-William-Danker-etc.-z-lib.org_.pdf  

Spicq, Ceslas. Theological Lexicon of the New Testament. Translated by James Ernest.

https://archive.org/details/theological-lexicon-of-the-new-testament-ceslas-spicq  

Kittel, Gerhard, TDNT abridged, free pdf available at:

https://www.agathonlibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Gerhard-Kittel-Editor-Gerhard-Friedrich-Editor-Theological-Dictionary-of-the-New-Testament_-Abridged-in-One-Volume-Eerdmans-1985.pdf 

Some practical guidelines of interpretation and Bible study

The following chart is an effort to picture (as floors of a building) how to conntect one’s study of the Bible with one’s walk in life.  Each “floor” is based foundationally upon the one below, so to speak (and not the reverse).  In other words, the study process begins at the bottom and works its way up in influence.  Each area of disciplined study listed determines with what the one above is to be studied.   Thus, each of these areas of study is a basis for the one above it and determines the contents, foundation, and direction of the one above it. 

Beliefs:  One’s Christian Life of Ethics & Decisions 

Theology:  A Systematic, Biblical, & Practical Theology

Hermeneutics:  A Critical Interpretation of Biblical Texts

Exegesis:  Parsing, Lexical & Syntactical study along with its History and Culture

Critical Text:  A Carefully Determined Form of the Biblical Text

A large and challenging temptation for any Bible student can be found in having to choose between something which, on the one hand, he or she finds that the Bible clearly teaches and something which, on the other hand, life and experience (even logic and common sense) teach.  It is always encouraging and reassuring, when these two such things are the same.  However, when they are not, that is, where what the Bible teaches is in contrast or contradiction to what life teaches, the choice appears to be simple: Choose the Bible, after carefully checking, interpreting and finding what the Bible really does teach in a given matter.  In the abstract, one would always choose to go with what the Bible teaches; however, in actual, concrete, real-life situations it is quite different. The temptation is always strong to choose what life and experience teach and then to twist what the Bible says to fit the two together, in other words, to have a “downward” influence and “adjusting” in the above chart, so as to progress downward in place of upward in developing a study of a Bible passage!  This one must seek to avoid.

This is the greatest challenge that a Christian will find in his or her Christian walk, as Peter describes Paul’s writings in 2 Peter 3:16, “as also in all his epistles, speaking in them about these things, in which are certain things not well-understood, which things unlearned and unstable men torture, as also the rest of the Scripture, toward their own destruction.”   The Greek term here, strebloō, translated “torture” means to twist and distort on a torture rack. Some people do this to the Bible for their own immoral purposes.  Norman Geisler put it in an applicational way: “Either your view of morality will inform your view of the Bible, or your view of the Bible will inform your view of morality.”  Remember that the Bible is transcultural and transcends any person’s culture with principles and ways of God, that it applies to all people.

In a corollary way, however, one must remember that the personal guidance of God the Holy Spirit who inspired the Bible seeks to guide us into all truth in it. Jesus spoke of this in John 14:26, “But the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in My name will teach you all things, and He will remind you of all things which I said to you.” Then, a little later in John 16:13 He explained, “But, when He might come, the Spirit of Truth, He will guide you into all the truth; for He will not speak from Himself; but, He will speak, as many things, as He might hear, and he will declare to you the things coming.”  Also, even though Church History has had various problems with heresy, no true believer will ever see himself or herself, as uniquely knowing God’s Word to the exclusion of all others in history.  So, there is a place for the guidance of Church History in one’s Bible interpretation within measure. 

Interpretation needs to be within “The Context” of:

1. The Historical and Geographical Background – An understanding of the passage in light of its place in history and the place and influence upon and by the people and ideas in history.
2. The Cultural Background – An understanding of the environs and worldview and any idiocentric cultural influence on the text.
3. The Paragraph – A discourse analysis on the paragraph level in a broadening context.
4. The Book – An analysis of the textual unit in which the passage is extant. This was the textual boundary in its original inspiration.
5. The Literary form within each Testament – An analytical comparing of other similar books within the Testament, e.g., The Torah, Prophets, Writings, History, Poetry, Gospels, Epistles, etc.
6. The Testament – A comparison of other passages within the New Testament only or Old Testament only and then both.
7. The Genre of Literature – A comparison of other passages within the genre of the book, etc., Narrative, Poetry, Wisdom, Apocalyptic, Epistolary, etc.
8. The Biblical Theology – A comparison of other passages in light of the development of progressive revelation.
9. The Systematic Theology – A topical analysis of the Old and New Testament, as each part fits together in a coherent system of thought behind their inspiration without contradiction or inconsistency in any detail.

Some Practical “How-To’s” in Bible Interpretation:

1. Begin with that which is plain and obvious.  “In the Bible the main things are the plain things, and the plain things are the main things.” Adrian Rogers.
2. Notice the context of passage, book, theology, cultural, language, history. In Biblical hermeneutics of literal interpretation, #1 –”If it makes sense, look for no further sense, lest it makes non-sense.”  Biblical consistency or coalescence takes bible passages that at first might appear contradictory or in some way inconsistent and finds alternative interpretations that will coalesce the bible passages being studied.  God’s Word behind the words is then found and understood. Such passages could be illustrated by the story of the three blind men and the elephant.  The first blind man understood that he was feeling around a trunk of a tree.  The second blind man understood that he was feeling the side of a wall.  The third blind man understood that he was feeling rather large, bending rope.  All three understood in part.  Their three interpretations coalesced their understanding that they were next to an elephant.  There was no contradiction.  It all fit.
3. Keep a notebook of what you learn, especially a loosed leaf notebook;[134] or better yet on a Personal Computer you can put together documents for notes. (See the Appendix for further details.) Such notes would involve exegesis of the text, including word studies and sentence studies, various translations, along with your own person interpretive paraphrase, issues of interpretation, and list of applications.
4. Keep a prayerful, committed, anticipated daily time in study and meditation of the Bible (Psalm1:2) and a regular, weekly time in some group study of the Bible (Proverbs11:14).

Here is a list of suggestions for studying a passage in detail:

1. Word studies – In a careful detailed study, one can take each of the key words of a studied verse or passage and search for some further understanding of each of them.  This can be done in a comparison of various standard translations, as well as commentary translations.  Further, in a more detailed effort The Strongest Strong’s Concordance KJV has a very nice set of Hebrew and Greek dictionaries for this purpose.  Finally, a good Bible dictionary or theological dictionary or Word Studies volume can give one even a further understanding of specific terms.
2. Flow of thought – By looking at the whole sentence or paragraph, note the general idea and how it is developed.  To begin with, one needs to note any pronouns and connect them to their antecedents.  Some questions have a yes or no implied in them. 
3.  Various standard translations – An nice format for this is in parallel translations editions that may have from 2 to 8 translations on a given page or facing pages.
4. Related passages – Reference Study Bibles will have footnotes or chain references listed by a given verse.  This will help one compare scripture with scripture.
5. Interpretive paraphrasing – After some study of a given verse or passage, it is helpful to write down an interpretive paraphrase of what the verse or passage really means beyond simply the translation.  This is what one finds with the Living Bible or Living Translation or The Message.
6. Interpretation(s) – Every Bible verse and passage has one basic interpretation where God makes clear what He is saying, but some passages may intentionally be ambiguous in a combination of interpretations brought together. However, it is helpful at times to list various interpretations by others of a given passage for future reference.
7. Applications – Now that you have found what the verse or passage meant back in the time that it was written and what it means today, list some personal applications of the passage. 

Another practical procedure is reading through the Bible topically.  One can systematically read through passages in the Bible covering a specific topic or doctrine.  Find a particular subject of interest in a Subject Index or Bible Dictionary or by looking up key words using a concordance to find passages using these words.  A center-chain reference system in a study Bible will list other passages related to the one that you are presently reading. 

Various published Christian books and study guides

Notes from Bible studies, sermons, and various classes on the Bible are more easily remembered and retrieved for future use, when written down.  Such notes can come from opportunities in ministry, family devotional times, Church Sunday School classes, Home Bible Studies, casual conversations in ministry with neighbors and friends or on the job or at school, and even in writing opportunities in ministry.

The importance of daily Bible study can be seen, when “Dusty Bibles lead to dirty lives.”  Though many Christians drink from the fountain of the knowledge of God, sadly so many others just gargle.  The exciting thing about the Bible is how it is so transcultural, in that it transcends one’s culture with principles and the ways of God, that apply to all people everywhere throughout all the ages.

Your daily quiet time in the Bible involves time to pray, then read some more for quality not quantity, even if it is just one verse.  Ask yourself:  Is there A Command to Obey…A Promise to Claim…A Sin to Avoid…A Lesson to Learn…A New Truth to Carry.  Read carefully, and write down what God reveals to you in the process. You can put this in your Bible’s margin or your daily journal or Bible study notebook (paper loose-leaf or electronic PC).  Share with someone else what you learn.  Obey what you learn.

In a practical procedure you can read through the Bible on a regular basis, alternating between the Old Testament and the New Testament.  The Old Testament has some 929 chapters that average about 25 verses per chapter, and the New Testament has some 260 chapters that average about 30 verses per chapter. The Bible can be read aloud in 70 hours or about 12 minutes a day every day over a year’s time.  Reading in the OT at 2½ chapters a day it would take you a year to complete.  Reading in just the Old Testament at a chapter a day it would take one 2 ½ years to complete it.  As for reading a chapter a day in the New Testament, it would take 8½ months to complete it.  However, if you read a chapter every day, switching between the Old Testament one day and the New Testament the other day, it would take you 5 years.  Since the Old Testament is about three times the size of the New Testament, during each reading through of the Old Testament, you will be reading through the New Testament three times.

Luke wrote of an interesting observation about the Jews at Berea in Acts 17:11, “But these (Judeans) were more well-bred than the ones in Thessalonica, as some who received the word with all readiness by (each) day examining the scriptures, if these things were to have (it) thus.”  These Jewish unbelievers were more well-mannered than the Jewish unbelievers living in Thessalonica, in that they welcomed God’s apostolic word with much open-minded interest.  Each day they engaged in careful study of what the Old Testament said to size-up and see how solid and true Paul’s teachings lined up with it.

Joshua explained in Joshua 1:8 that one can find four facets of how the Bible is to be in our lives:

We are to proclaim the word of God – “This book of the Law shall not depart from your mouth…” – but you shall always be talking about it to others.

We are to ponder the word of God – “…you are to meditate in it day and night…” – study it, memorize it, think about it, and apply it. – “Meditation gives you knowledge about God.  Obedience gives you knowledge of God.”

We are to practice the word of God – “that you might observe to do all that is in it…” – apply it and practice it and obey it.

We are to proceed with the word of God – “then it will make your way prosperous and you will have good success.” – God’s word becomes a way of life where you spiritually succeed.

Finally, remember to:

Appreciate the Virtues of the Word of God.  It is a timeless book.

Appropriate the Values of the Word of God.  It is a practical book.

Assimilate the Vitality of the Word of God.  It is a life-giving book.

APPENDIX 1 – A Creationist Model of Origins in a Parallel of Textual Criticism with Biology

Biological Evolution:

1. Various, present-day species have had a continuous evolution from earlier, predecessor, inter-species forms over billions of years. 
2. Various, present-day species have emerged from simpler, earlier species-forms through natural selection and DNA-mutations.
3. By means of the phenotype manifested by mutations, natural selection has fashion various species, as they appear today.
4. DNA sequencing evolved in a complex but unknown pathway of random selection by its phenotype expression within the environment.
5. Genetic mutations continually occur to form various forms.
6. There are many earlier, predecessor, inter-species forms predicted in the fossil record, though few are definitively found.
7. The evolution of newer species is continuing even to the present, but this in any macroscopic “vertical direction” is occurring so slowly that it is not observable.

Textual-Critical Evolution:

1. The scrolls of the two canons emerged by only naturalistic processes in text forms quite later than their respective historical eras. These scrolls were written and edited over quite large periods of time to their present state with no theological design of progressive revelation.
2. All present, extant texts emerged from simpler, “primitive”, separate text form and were edited into their present forms.
3. Redaction and natural philosophy have brought about the emergence of the present text forms of the canons from various, simple, primordial, oral traditions.
4. The specific wording found in various forms in extant manuscripts in its original language evolved from various, predecessor sources.
5. textual variants occurred in the transmission of early Textform that evolved into our present text forms of the canons.
6. There are and were no autographs resembling the present text form.
7. There is the possibility of open canons, although none have been canonized since the first century AD.

Biological Creation:

1. Various, present-day species have been distinctly created by God’s design in an ancient, finite 6-day period of original creation of each species.
2. Various, present-day species have remained much the same within their own respective gene-pools.
3. The detrimental result of most all mutations and irreducible complexity of organs are insufficient to have brought about any emergence of present-day species from predecessor species forms.
4. DNA sequencing was specifically “written out” by God for each species at creation.
5. Genetic mutations cause variation from the originally created gene-pool and are detrimental.
6. Gaps in the fossil record predictably exist between species of which one has never evolved into another, though many have become extinct.
7. No new species are macroscopically being created nor evolving, but many have and will become extinct.  However, within a gene pool various given locales may have varying proportions of specific genes.

Textual-Critical Creation:

1. The scrolls of the two canons were created by supernatural inspiration within their respective historical eras and written by named authors during their lifetimes and have an overarching and consistent theological design of progressive revelation.
2. All present, extant texts have remained substantially fixed since the autographs of the named authors.
3. Redaction and natural philosophy are insufficient to have brought about any emergence of present text forms of the two canons from various simple, primordial, oral traditions.
4. The specific wording found in various forms in extant manuscripts in its original language began in a specific form in the autographs.
5. Textual variants occurred in the transmission of the autographs to our present, extant manuscripts.
6. The autographs were generally written early on during their depicted historical era.
7. The canons have been closed without any additions since the first century AD

Notable parallels:

1. The scrolls of the two canons were created by supernatural inspiration within their respective historical eras. 

This is a very traditional understanding of these canons over the centuries in contrast to a rather naturalistic model of their origins found in evolution-theory.  A naturalistic model begins with the assertion that the two canons of literature are to be understood and examined, as would any other body of literature. However, a creationist model proposes a uniqueness of these two canons.

1. All present, extant texts have remained substantially fixed since the autographs of the named authors.

The present, extant copies of the texts of the two canons appear with textual variants within each book but without any manuscriptal evidence of any edited mixture of any two or more books.  This uniformity of transmission with little change has an interesting comparison in biological evolution.  Charles Darwin had some troublesome creatures that he labeled “living fossils.”  There were organisms that were supposedly extinct for many millions of years only to appear in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries alive and well. For example, some dragonflies have fossil remains over “300 million years old” with wing venation virtually identical to dragonfly wings today.  Millipedes supposedly have been crawling around for “420 million years.”

1. Redaction and natural philosophy are insufficient to have brought about any emergence of present text forms of the two canons from various simple, primordial, oral traditions.

With the lack of manuscript evidence to show the historical mechanisms of redaction and form criticism, thoughtful proposals and parallels to genre of natural literature outside of the two canons offer only conjecture. Thus the extant evidence of the text for each of the two canons found among manuscripts must be primary in the establishing of the best model of origins.  Thus, in this evidence there appears to be no “streams of texts” coming to make up any given present text.  In fact through history, for example, regarding the Gospels, it is the reverse in regards to Tatian’s Diatesssaron or modern Gospel harmonies. 

4. The specific wording found in various forms in extant manuscripts in its original language began in a specific form in the autographs.

Among the multiplicity of these extant manuscripts, the specific wording of a text of each of the two canons can be determined by a given textual-critical model.  It is in the belief of the existence of original, even singular, autographs, that textual critics seek to edit a text that would duplicate these autographs, as an effort of extrapolating back to them.  This is the interesting assumption made in most edited texts of these two canons such that each given book had an autograph, and the goal is to reproduce it.

5. Textual variants occurred in the transmission of the autographs to our present, extant manuscripts.

Within the body of extant manuscripts, these textual variants do not reflect several editorial streams, as much as variations from an original autograph of a given text.  To put it another way, these variants are more “horizontal” than “vertical.”  This would refer to textual variants showing variation in wording but not in editing.   Again, the given parallel with biology is that gene pools of various species show internal variation but only variation within substantial inter-species boundaries. 

6. The autographs were generally written early on during their depicted historical era.

This part of the model posits an early fixation of the recopied, transmitted text of the autographs.  This would put the 1500-year period of the writing of the two canons in parallel with the fiat creation-week of Genesis 1. 

7. The canons have been closed without any additions, since the first century AD.

A general, evolutionary model would assume that evolution is currently occurring and will always continue to.  However, with the creationist model, as various species were brought into being in Genesis 1, no new “information” in the form of DNA has been created since.  There has only been rearranging and detrimental mutating of existing DNA. Thus, this would be paralleled in application by the uniqueness and completion of these two canons with their composition in the two eras of 15th to 4th century BC for the Hebrew canon and 1st century AD for the Greek NT canon.

Some proposed Tenets for Canonical Creationism:

1. The phenomenon of the two canons did not develop by natural processes from strictly human systems of thought but was specially and supernaturally created by the Creator. 

2. Each text of the canons was created functionally complete from the beginning and did not evolve through some editing process upon earlier non-extant texts. 

3. Each book of the canon did not evolve from earlier forms but were specially written in its autograph which has survived in present, extant manuscripts.  Furthermore, these books of the canon have a “spiritual” nature of inspiration supernaturally created by God distinct from other human writings.

4. From the time of the earliest, extant copies of parts of these books back to the writing of its autograph, there is an absence of direct evidence.  Thus, in light of there being only conjecture there is no a priori reason for not considering a simple line of transmission of these writings.

5. There is an evidence of uniformity of the text over the centuries, as earlier, extant manuscripts are compared to later ones of the same text.

6. The transmission of the extant body of manuscripts of any given book has been impaired, since the writing of its autograph, so that textual variations within this body of manuscripts are a result of human frailty and error in transmitting an originally perfectly designed autograph.  However, within the multiplicity of extant manuscripts, and even versions, may be found this original autograph.

APPENDIX 2 – Some interesting Bible Facts

The system of chapters was introduced in A.D. 1238 by Cardinal Hugo de S. Caro, while the verse notations were added in 1551 by Robertus  Stephanus, after the advent of printing.   According to statistics from Wycliffe International, the Society of Gideons, and the International Bible Society, the number of new Bibles that are sold, given away, or otherwise distributed in the United States is about 168,000 per day.  The Bible can be read aloud in 70 hours.  There are 8,674 different Hebrew words in the Bible, 5,624 different Greek words, and 12,143 different English words in the King James Version. 

BIBLE STATISTICS: 
Number of books in the Bible: 66 
Chapters: 1,189 
Verses: 31,102

Number of promises given in the Bible: 1,260 
Commands: 6,468 
Predictions: over 8,000 
Fulfilled prophecy: 3,268 verses 
Unfulfilled prophecy: 3,140 
Number of questions: 3,294 
Longest verse: Esther 8:9 (78 words) 
Shortest verse: John 11:35 (2 words: “Jesus wept”). 
Middle books: Micah and Nahum 
Middle verse: Psalm 118:8 
Middle chapter: Psalm 117 
Shortest chapter (by number of words): Psalm 117 (by number of words) 
Longest book: Psalms (150 chapters) 
Shortest book (by number of words): 3 John 
Longest chapter: Psalm 119 (176 verses) 
Number of different authors: 40 
Number of languages the Bible has been translated into: over 1,200 

 

OLD TESTAMENT STATISTICS: 
Number of books: 39 
Chapters: 929 

Verses: 23,114 
Middle book: Proverbs 
Middle chapter: Job 20 
Smallest book: Obadiah 
Shortest verse: 1 Chronicles 1:25 
Longest verse: Esther 8:9 
Longest chapter: Psalms 119 
Largest book: Psalms 

 

NEW TESTAMENT STATISTICS: 
Number of books: 27 
Chapters: 260 
Verses: 7,957 
Smallest book: 3 John 
Shortest verse: John 11:35 
Longest verse: Revelation 20:4 
Longest chapter: Luke 1 
Largest book: Luke

http://agards-bible-timeline.com/q10_bible-facts.html

APPENDIX 3 – Passages from some Pseudepigrapha books:

THE FIRST GOSPEL OF THE INFANCY OF JESUS CHRIST

CHAPTER 8

1. In their journey from there they came into a desert country and were told it was infested with robbers; so Joseph and St. Mary prepared to pass through it in the night.
2. And as they were going along, behold they saw two robbers asleep in the road, and with them a great number of robbers who were their confederates, also asleep.
3. The names of these two were Titus and Dumachus; and Titus said to Dumachus, I implore you, let these persons go along quietly, so that our company may not perceive anything of them:
4. But Dumachus refused, and Titus again said, I will give you forty groats, and as a pledge take my girdle, which he gave him before he had done speaking, so that he might not open his mouth or make a noise.
5. When the Lady St. Mary saw the kindness which this robber showed them, she said to him, The Lord God will receive you to his right hand and grant you pardon of your sins.
6. Then the Lord Jesus answered and said to his mother, When thirty years are expired, O mother, the Jews will crucify me at Jerusalem;
7. And these two thieves shall be with me at the same time upon the cross, Titus on my right hand, and Dumachus on my left, and from that time Titus shall go before me into paradise:

CHAPTER 15
1. And when the Lord Jesus was seven years of age, he was on a certain day with other boys his companions about the same age.

Dr. Talmage says: “Christ was the joyous boy of the fields. We are not permitted to think that the shadows of Calvary darkened His pathway as a youth, and the Apocryphal Books of the New Testament show a great deal of the early life of Christ not to be found in the four Evangelists.”

2. Who at play made clay into several shapes, namely, asses, oxen, birds, and other figures.
3. Each boasting of his work and endeavoring to exceed the rest.
4. Then the Lord Jesus said to the boys, I will command these figures which I have made to walk.
5. And immediately they moved, and when he commanded them to return, they returned.
6. He had also made the figures of birds and sparrows, which, when he commanded to fly, did fly, and when he commanded to stand still, did stand still; and if he gave them meat and drink, they did eat and drink.
7. When at length the boys went away and related these things to their parents, their fathers said to them, Take heed, children, for the future, of his company, for he is a sorcerer; shun and avoid him, and from now on never play with him.

What one thinks of this depends on one’s beliefs about the powers of a seven-year-old Christ.

8. [New paragraph in the oldest extant manuscripts] On a certain day also, when the Lord Jesus was playing with the boys, and running about, he passed by a dyer’s shop, whose name was Salem.
9. And in his shop were many pieces of cloth belonging to the people of that city, which they designed to dye of several colors.
10. Then the Lord Jesus went into the dyer’s shop, took all the clothes, and threw them into the furnace.
11. When Salem came home and saw the cloths spoiled, he began to make a great noise and to chide the Lord Jesus, saying,
12. What have you done to me, O son of Mary? You have injured both me and my neighbors; they all desired their cloths of a proper color; but you have come and spoiled them all.
13. The Lord Jesus replied, I will change the color of every cloth to what color you desire;
14. And then he presently began to take the cloths out of the furnace, and they were all dyed of those same colors which the dyer desired.
15. And when the Jews saw this surprising miracle, they praised God.

[La Brosse’s Persic Lexicon cites Persian legends that relate Christ’s working this miracle with the colors and claim he practiced the trade of a dyer, and for that reason Persian dyers honor him as their patron and call a dye-house the shop of Christ.]

ACTS OF PAUL AND THECLA – CHAPTER I

1:1 When Paul went up to Iconium, after his flight from Antioch, Demas and Hermogenes became his companions, who were then full of hypocrisy. 

1:2 But Paul looking only at the goodness of God, did them no harm, but loved them greatly. 

1:3 Accordingly he endeavored to make agreeable to them all the oracles and doctrines of Christ, and the design of the Gospel of God’s well-beloved Son, instructing them in the knowledge of Christ, as it was revealed to him. 

1:4 And a certain man named Onesiphorus, hearing that Paul was come to Iconium, went out speedily to meet him, together with his wife Lectra, and his sons Simmia and Xeno, to invite him to their house. 

1:5 For Titus had given them a description of Paul’s personage, they as yet not knowing him in person, but only being acquainted with his character. 

1:6 They went in the king’s highway to Lystra, and stood there waiting for him, comparing all who passed by, with that description which Titus had given them. 

1:7 At length they saw a man coming (namely Paul), of a low stature, bald (or shaved) on the head, crooked thighs, handsome legs, hollow-eyed; had a crooked nose; full of grace; for sometimes he appeared as a man, sometimes he had the countenance of an angel. And Paul saw Onesiphorus, and was glad.

APPENDIX 4 – A Method of Organizing Bible Study Notes in PC Files and Word Documents

Here is a method for organizing one’s Inductive Bible study notes book-by-book and chapter-by-chapter.  Begin with the two folders:  “1 Old Testament” and “2 New Testament.”   

Then, by using the lists of books of the Bible with order numbers below: 

In the file labeled, “1 Old Testament,” place the sub-files “01 – Genesis” and “02 – Exodus” etc. 

In the file labeled, “2 New Testament,” place the sub-files “01 – Matthew” and “02 – Mark” etc.

In the sub-file, “01 – Genesis,” place a Word Documents “Genesis 01” & “Genesis 02” etc.

In the sub-file, “02 – Exodus,” place a Word Documents “Exodus 02” & “Exodus 02” etc.

One’s Bible Study notes on each chapter of the Bible can be placed on its so-labeled document verse-by-verse for easy reference and access:

Old Testament files:

01 - Genesis 

02 - Exodus 

03 - Leviticus 

04 - Numbers 

05 - Deuteronomy 

06 - Joshua 

07 - Judges

08 - Ruth

09 - 1 Samuel

10 - 2 Samuel

11 - 1 Kings

12 - 2 Kings

13 - 1 Chronicles

14 - 2 Chronicles

15 - Ezra

16 - Nehemiah

17 - Esther 

18 - Job

19 - Psalms

20 - Proverbs

21 - Ecclesiastes

22 - Song of Songs

23 - Isaiah

24 - Jeremiah

25 - Lamentations

26 - Ezekiel

27 - Daniel

28 - Hosea 

29 - Joel

30 - Amos

31 - Obadiah

32 - Jonah

33 - Micah

34 - Nahum

35 - Habakkuk

36 - Zephaniah

37 - Haggai

38 - Zechariah

39 - Malachi

New Testament files:

01 - Matthew

02 - Mark

03 - Luke

04 - John

05 - Acts

06 - Romans 

07 - 1 Corinthians 

08 - 2 Corinthians 

09 - Galatians 

10 - Ephesians 

11 - Philippians 

12 - Colossians 

13 - 1 Thessalonians

14 - 2 Thessalonians 

15 - 1 Timothy 

16 - 2 Timothy 

17 - Titus 

18 - Philemon 

19 - Hebrews 

20 - James 

21 - 1 Peter 

22 - 2 Peter 

23 - 1 John 

24 - 2 John 

25 - 3 John 

26 - Jude 

27 - Revelation

This format can be listed for the verses in any chapter, as one Word Document for each chapter:

(A set of these formats in document form is available for chapters 1 through 28 with verses 1 through 60, that should cover any book in the New Testament)

1:1 –

Translations/Versions:

Exegesis and Key Word Studies:

Flow of Thought:

Cross-references:

Interpretation and Interpretive Paraphrase:

Applications: 

1:2 –

Translations/Versions:

Exegesis and Key Word Studies:

Flow of Thought:

Cross-references:

Interpretation and Interpretive Paraphrase:

Applications: 

1:3 –

Translations/Versions:

Exegesis and Key Word Studies:

Flow of Thought:

Cross-references:

Interpretation and Interpretive Paraphrase:

Applications: 

NOTES:

The MT Text of the Bible – 

The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Old Testament and Byzantine/Majority Text of the Greek New Testament over the centuries have had an odd pattern of a Progressive view seeking to replace the Traditionalist view:

1. The Hebrew Old Testament text of the Bible was considered inferior by some Christians in the early Church, when they stressed the authority of the Septuagint, as an improvement superior to the Hebrew Old Testament text.
2. The Hebrew Old Testament text and the Greek New Testament text of the Bible was considered inferior by the western, Roman Church, when they produced the translation of the Latin Vulgate, as an improvement superior to the previous Judeo-Christian Hebrew Old Testament text and the Greek New Testament text during the medieval era of Europe.
3. The Hebrew Old Testament text and the Greek New Testament text of the Bible was considered inferior, when Islam produced the Quran, as an improvement superior to the Judeo-Christian text.
4. The Hebrew Old Testament text and the Greek New Testament text of the Bible was considered inferior, when Joseph Smith produced the Book of Mormon, as an improvement superior to the previous Judeo-Christian text.
5. The Hebrew Old Testament text of the Bible was considered inferior by some Christians in some English-specking church, when they stressed the authority of the English King James Version of the Bible, as an improvement superior to the Hebrew Old Testament text and Greek New Testament text.
6. The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Old Testament and the Byzantine/Majority Text of the Greek New Testament were considered inferior by various scholars, among whom were Wescott and Hart, when they compiled the Nestle/UBS Eclectic Text, as an improvement superior to the previously popular Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Old Testament and Majority Text of the Greek New Testament.

Were those in the early Christian [Messianic] Church wrong, until some found the Septuagint better?

Were those in the Eastern Orthodox Church wrong, until some in the Latin Church found the Latin Vulgate a greater understanding of The Word of God?

Were those in Christianity wrong, until Islam found the Quran, as a greater understanding God and His Word?

Were those in Christian church wrong, until John Smith in his Mormonism with his Book of Mormon came to correct the Church?

Were Christians wrong in their reliance on the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament, until the King James Version of the Bible was produced and gave a more accurate understanding of God and His Word?

Were the majority of Christians wrong in using an “inferior MT text”, when various Christian scholars compiled a Stuttgartensia [Leningrad B19a (L)] Hebrew Old Testament text and an eclectic Greek New Testament from “older and better” manuscripts and asserted their superiority in a more accurate understanding God and His Word.

The Bible is God’s Objective Reality of Truth, because of:

1. The Person of Jesus Christ, as The Living Word of God (see John 1:1,14; Revelation 19:13).
2. The People of Israel, as the Human Avenue of the Bible, are still extant (see Romans 3:2).
3. The Paper Trail of Accuracy among some 5,800 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament and some 60,000 Hebrew Old Testament manuscripts with about 200,000 fragments.
4. The Power to Change the Lives of the Lost to be Saved and of the Saved to Minister and even Sacrifice in every way (see Romans 12:1-2. Hebrews 4:12; Psalms 19 & 119).
5. The Proliferation of Translations with the Sheer Number of Copies of the Bible worldwide (including 10,000 ancient Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in other languages).
6. The Promise of Inspiration (see 2 Peter 1:21).
7. The Precepts from The Word of Knowledge and The Word of Wisdom from the Holy Spirit (see 1 Corinthians 12:8).

The BIBLE is God’s Objective Reality of TRUTH, because of:

1. The PERSON of Jesus Christ, as The Living Word of God (see John 1:1,14; Revelation 19:13)!
2. The PEOPLE of Israel, as the Human Avenue of the Bible, are still around even today (see Romans 3:2)!
3. The PAPER-TRAIL of Accuracy among some 5,800 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament and some 60,000 Hebrew Old Testament manuscripts with about 200,000 fragments to compare with each other!
4. The POWER to Change the Lives of the Lost to be Saved and of the Saved to Minister and even Sacrifice in every way (see Romans 12:1-2. Hebrews 4:12; Psalms 19 & 119)!
5. The PROLIFERATION of Translations with the Sheer Number of Copies of the Bible in print worldwide (including 10,000 ancient Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in other languages)!
6. The PROMISE of Divine Inspiration (see 2 Peter 1:20-21)!
7. The PRECEPTS from The Word of Knowledge and The Word of Wisdom given by the Holy Spirit (see 1 Corinthians 12:8)! 

Turning your Loneliness into Aloneness – Solitude with God in a Quiet Time in His Word and Prayer:

1. Give it a Purpose.
2. View it as the Opportunity to Grown (2 Peter 3:18).
3. See it, as a Divine Appointment.
4. Have it be a School of Learning.
5. Be Silent in listening to God’s Word of Faith, Knowledge, and Wisdom (1 Cor.  12:8-9).
6. Watch for a Sense, a Feel, of Anticipation. 

People grow old in appearance but the first century Greek NT text did not.  What we have are meticulous copies of copies of copies that were continuously compared with other copies for "quality control" over the centuries.  So God's providence gave a consistency within the "majority of Greek NT manuscripts" surviving.  Older [being so relatively small in number, as "witnesses"] does not necessarily mean Better.  Accurate manuscripts were well used and wore out.   Less accurate manuscripts had a propensity of leaving out words and verses more than adding new verses [which was a No-No].  The New King James Bible does have M in the Center Column Notes to give you an nice English translation of the Majority Text.  The Textus Receptus has a narrow use of mainly European manuscripts.

[1] A translation of bebaioteros.

[2] This Greek word, ginomai, means to occur, happen, arise, or come into being.

[3] A translation of idios.

[4] 2 Peter 3:15-16 – “And consider the patience of our Lord to be salvation, accordingly as even our beloved brother, Paul, according to the wisdom given to him wrote to you.as also in all his epistles, speaking in them about these things, in which are certain things not well-understood, which things unlearned and unstable ones torture, as also the rest of the Scripture, toward their own destruction.”

[5] His website can be found at: http://www.voddiebaucham.org

[6] The Logos in John 1:1and 14; Revelation 19:13.

[7] The Logos in Hebrews 4:12; 13:7; 1 Timothy 4:5.

[8] The Christian Advocate, vol. 82, p. 1432 (24), Sept. 5, 1907; Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine, vol. 12, p. 46.

[9] The Greek term used here is membrana which is actually a Latin word for “skin” from which the English word membrane comes.

[10] This word and the English word, “paper,” both come from the Greek word, papyros.

[11] This may be a fulfillment of the prophecy in Zephaniah 3:9 of a “pure language (literally, lip)” that will be used by God’s people during the Tribulation and Millennial Day of the Lord.

[12] Such as The Douay-Rheims Bible of the Old Testament and NETS [New English Translation of the Septuagint].

[13] Such as The Douay-Rheims Bible of the New Testament.

[14] Such a list of these would include from the Greek NT:  angel, anthropology, apostolic, criterion, ecclesiastical, hema-, pneumatic, theology, pyro-, sympathy, etc.; and from the Hebrew OT:  camel, cane, czar, eye, harem, seven, six, etc.

[15] The following list would include such words from the Greek NT:  Abba, Alpha, antichrist, Apocalypse, apostle, baptism, Christ, cosmos, deacon, demon, diabolical, dynamism, economy, eschaton, eucharist, evangelist, Gehenna, Hades, kerygma, martyr, mega, Omega, paradise, parousia, presbyterian, prophet, psyche, Sabbath, sophia, and Tartarus; and from the Hebrew OT:  Adonai, Amen, cherub, Jubilee, Messiah, muzzussah, Saboth, Satan, seraph, shalom, and Torah.

[16] Some suggested words might be from the Greek NT: agape, ekklesia, gnosis, koinonia, hilasmos, logos, parthenos, theos, and zoe; and from the Hebrew OT: ahav, El, Elohim, goel, kippur, Mabul (Noah’s flood), Mashiach, nephesh, neshema, Pesach, purim, Shem, Sheol, shophar, and yom.

[17] The scholarly plural of “autograph” is “autographs.”  However, we will use the more popular English term “autographs.” 

[18] It is notable that “man” and “Adam” are the same word in Hebrew [adam], thus “the man” would be “the Adam.”

[19] In asserting this inspiration some would go beyond the biblical text and add the Bible’s “Table of Contents,” as being inspired.  This would be true in our understanding of canonicity – an “inspirited list of inspired books.”  Some may even go further, as to the maps (often found bound in the back of many editions of the Bible) being inspired. Here again, these maps portray an inspired “Biblical geography” with places and boundaries that have no extra-biblical references.  In other words, some items on the maps have only our inspired biblical text specifying their existence and location. 

[20] Note Paul in Colossians 4:18; Galatians 6:11; 1 Corinthians16:21; 2 Thessalonians 3:17. 

[21] Principally that biblical books were not written by the named-authors.

[22] In the consideration of “variant readings.”

[23] In the consideration of heavy editing from texts that have long since disappeared.

[24] Books presently counted as 2, such as Samuel and Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, and the “Minor Prophets” counted as 1.

[25] Some transliterate this, as “Tanak.”

[26] Luke 24:44 – And he said to them, “These are the words which I spoke to you while being with you, that it was necessary for all the things to be fulfilled, the things written in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms about me.”

[27] A nice popular edition of this in Koine Greek is Septuaginta edited by Alfred Rahlfs and Robert Hanhart, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (2006).

[28] Only until recently has there been an English pastoral translation popularly published, called The Orthodox Study Bible.  Interestingly, the New Testament is the New King James Version which has “M” footnotes giving the readings of the Greek New Testament according to the Byzantine Text, called The Majority Text in the NKJV.  This is the traditional Greek New Testament text of the Greek Orthodox Church.  So, if Eastern Orthodox Christians read this New Testament and incorporate the readings of the M-footnotes into the text, they will have an English translation of their traditional Greek New Testament.  Further information can be found on the internet at:  www.LXX.org. 

[29] Further information of this translation can be found at:  www.ioscs.org. 

[30] This is to parallel the fact that the Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters.

[31] Contra Apion, 1.7-8 §§37-39.

[32]Concerning Moses’ writing of The Law, Mark Twain once noted, “If the Ten Commandments were not written by Moses, then they were written by another fellow of the same name.”  The authorship of the Torah is Mosaic and not a mosaic of subsequent writers and editors, theorized in the “Documentary Hypothesis.”  References in the Old Testament to Mosaic authorship can be found in 2 Kings 14:6; Ezra 3:2; Daniel 9:11.

[33] Jerome, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 6:489-490.

[34] Literally, “Things read.”

[35] A Greek version of 1 Enoch 1:9 reads, “he will come with 10,000 saints,” which is quoted in Jude 14.  Of course, there is much debate, as to which of these was first and is quoted by the other.

[36] This may be a source for Jude 9 or reflect a tradition referred to there.

[37] In 1:9 & 5:1 there is a description of Isaiah executed by being sawn in two, mentioned in Hebrews 11:37.

[38] Compare this to 2 Timothy 3:8.

[39] Jude 3 – “Beloved, while making every effort to write to you concerning the common salvation, I needed to write to you for encouraging you to contend for the faith once for all committed to the saints.” Here the term, “the faith,” meant belief, that is, the beliefs and theological doctrines of the church.

[40] Paul wrote over one-fourth of the Greek New Testament and was the apostolic authority for Luke for well over one-half of the Greek New Testament.  John was a little less than one-fifth.  Matthew was about one-eighth.  Peter was a little over one-tenth.  James was about one-fifty-sixth.

[41] Note an apostolic awareness by Paul who considered his writings to be authoritative – 1 Corinthians 14:37; Galatians1:6-12; Col. 1:25-26; 1 Thess. 2:13; 2 Thess. 2:15; 3:6-14; as did John in Rev. 1:1-3; 21:5; and Luke in Luke 1:3.

[42]Two of these among the Apostolic Fathers are:  Polycarp to the Philippians 12:1 (about 110 AD) – “For I am confident that you are well versed in the Scriptures, and from you nothing is hid; but to me this is not granted. Only, as it is said in these Scriptures, “Be ye angry and sin not,” and “Let not the sun go down upon your wrath.” Blessed is the man who remembers this, and I believe that it is so with you.” 1 Clem. 47:1-3 (about 95 AD) – “Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle.  What did he first write to you at the beginning of his preaching with true inspiration he charged you…”

[43] 2  John 9-11 – “Everyone trespassing and not remaining in the doctrine of Christ has not God; the one remaining in the doctrine of Christ, this one also has the Father and the Son.  If anyone comes to you and he does not carry this doctrine, do not receive him into your house and do to say ‘Rejoice’ to him.  For anyone saying to him, ‘Rejoice,’ shares in his wicked works.”

[44] Specifically, the rule involves the centrality the canon in Galatians 6:14-15 that taught Jesus Christ crucified and being a new creation.

[45]  John clearly wrote in Greek, although his Greek was influenced by his Hebrew.  The Gospel of Matthew had some early Hebrew forms, but Matthew originally wrote in inspired Gospel-text in Koine Greek, which stands behind all other extant copies of Matthew in other languages.

[46] In the early centuries of the church some books were questioned:  Hebrews (since the author is not given), James (since it appeared to be so sharp of a contrast to Paul’s letters), 2 Peter (since it was so different in style to the apostolic 1 Peter), 2 & 3 John and Jude (since they were so short and different than the apostolic 1 John), and Revelation (which some thought were too apocalyptic). 

[47] The Apostolic Fathers, 1.1.7, edited and translated by J. B. Lightfoot.

[48] The Apostolic Fathers 1:  An Introduction  by R. M. Grant (New York:  1964).

[49] A few odd examples of some passages from these books are found in the Appendix.

[50] Another example with a more detailed set of letters and numbers would be the telephone number, PE6-5000, popularized by Glenn Miller. Many big band names played in the Hotel Pennsylvania's Cafe Rouge in New York City, including the Glenn Miller Orchestra. The hotel's telephone number, PEnnsylvania 6-5000, inspired the Glenn Miller 1940 Top 5 Billboard hit of the same name, which had a 12-week chart run.  The music was written by Jerry Gray and the lyrics by Carl Sigman. This telephone number has been accurately remembered for decades, because from the lyrics point of origin many copies were made and then recopied and recopied, where all copies have the same PE6-5000.

[51] The term, “vet,” originated in horse racing, where veterinarians checked race horses to see, if they were free from illicit drugging.  They checked for the “authenticity” of a horse to be drugfree and thus to race legitimately.

[52] The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated by Martin G. Abegg, Peter Flint (Harper San Francisco, 1999, ISBN: 0060600632)

[53] “Talmud” literally means “study” in Hebrew.

[54] The plural of  tanna ( ant which means one who studies or teaches or repeats).

[55] The leaders among these sages were Yahana ben Zakkai, Gamaliel II of Yavneh, Akiva, Meir, and Yehuda

[56] The plural of amar which means to interpret or recite in Hebrew.

[57] At Caesarea, Sepphoris, and Tiberias (220-375 AD).

[58] At Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbedita (200-500 AD),

[59] br

[60] ybr

[61] The Masoretes so revered the text that they would not change any odd and highly unusual Hebrews words that they had found in the Hebrew text.  They did not want to emend the text but left it, as written.  They labeled these words “Kethib,” but offered an alternative word to be read aloud calling it the “Qere.”  Kethib literally means, “It is written.”  It is the actual Hebrew word found in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament that has something unusual and should be read using a different word. This is because the Masoretes simply recopy a word, even when they believed that it was a mistake and should be corrected to something else.  “Qere” literally means, “It is read.”  This is the different word that should be read in place of some unusual Hebrew word found in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament

[62] As to what seems to duplicate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament era, the arguments made for The Second Edition of the Rabbinic Bible or The First Edition of Jacob ben Chayim’s Bible are that this text has a continuity from Qumran (100BC-70AD) through the Tannaim (10-200AD), Amoraim (200-500AD), Masoretes (500-1000AD), and extant manuscripts (900-1500AD) to printed editions (1500’s).  It has a “paper-trail” with Qumran and manuscripts from 850 through 1500 AD, along with the Septuagint manuscripts at Qumran and the 4th and 5th century AD Greek Uncial manuscripts of the Septuagint.

[63] Or Targummim, as the Hebrew plural. 

[64] It is available on the internet at http://www.ccel.org/bible/brenton.  A revision of this called The Apostles’ Bible: A MODERN ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE GREEK SEPTUAGINT, is edited by Paul W. Esposito and can be found on the internet at http://www.apostlesbible.com.

[65] Their website about this project is:  www.LXX.org. 

[66] The website about this project is http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioscs/ with details of NETS at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/

[67] Further information can be found at www.septuagint-interlinear-greek-bible.com and www.septuagint-interlinear-greek-bible.com/downbook.htm. An individual translation is also available, as The Greek Septuagint (LXX) Version of the Old Testament at http://www.tricountyi.net/~randerse/LXXmenu.htm.

[68] Papyrus manuscript P26 is in Dallas at Southern Methodist Univeristy’s Bridwell Library and contains Romans 1.

[69] Their popular edition of New Testament is the Greek New Testament edited by Antoniades.  It is not a critical edition and appears to be similar to the late mass of Byzantine manuscripts but with more of an influence from the non-Byzantine Uncial manuscripts of אBΘ than the European Textus Receptus. 

[70] This edition and the NKJV Greek-English Interlinear New Testament published by Nelson Publishers that used it are out-of-print.  Both English translations of the WEB (World English Bible) and the English Majority Text Version (www.majoritytext.com) use this Majority Text in their translation of The New Testament.

[71] A copy is available from Dr. Robinson at mrobinson@sebts.edu for details.  One can order a copy from Dr. Maurice Robinson, SEBTS, P. O. Box 1889, Wake Forest, SC 27588 (mrobinson@sebts.edu), for $10.50. 

[72] Latin for the “Received Text.”

[73] Among them were these four:

An 11th-century codex at Basel (which often agrees with Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus). 

The 1r of the 12th century, and now at Mayhingen, Bayaria (the only manuscript Erasmus had for Revelation in his editio princeps, and being defective at the end, 22:16-21, he supplied the Greek text by retranslating from the Latin. Generally speaking, this manuscript is of high quality). 

A 15th-century manuscript at Basel, upon which Erasmus most depended for his 1st edition, 1516. (It reflects a good quality of text). 

The 2ap manuscript assigned to the 12th century, though it was probably later (which is at Basel and was the principal text used by Erasmus in the Acts and Epistles).

[74] Such as the Czech Bible Kralicka (1613) and Nova Kralicka Bible (1998); Danish Egen Wierod; Dutch NBG (1951), Statenvertaling (1637); German  Luther Unrevidierte (1545); Hungarian Karoli (1993); Italian La Nuova Diodati (1991); Portuguese  Corrigida Fiel (1753, 1995), Almeida Biblia (1994); Russian Synodal Bible; Spanish Reina-Valera (1909) and Reina-Valera Revised (1960) and Reina-Valera Update (1995), La Biblia de Las Americas (1986, 1997); and most Modern Greek Bibles.

[75] This term originally meant to pick and choose.

[76] This “NU” is from the initial letters of the two names above “Nestlel-Aland” and “United Bible Society.”

[77] This is in contrast to the the Textus Receptus that is based upon a somewhat limited number of Greek NT manuscripts.

[78] Harry Sturz lists 150 distinctively Byzantine readings found in the early papyri, (e.g., papyri numbers 13, 45, 46, 47, 49, 59, 66, 72, 74, and 75 in The Byzantine Text-Type and New Testament Textual Criticism, pp. 61, 145-159.)

[79] One can sense in the assertions of these early Eclectic Text scholars and their denigrating of any traditional text of the Greek New Testament something similar to a “Latter Day Saints” approach of discovering in our day what the Greek New Testament actually was in the autographs.

[80] As quoted by C. C. Ryrie in Formatting the Word of God (Dallas: Bridwell Library, 1998), p. 11.

[81] Geddes MacGregor, A Literary History of the Bible (Nashville: Abingdon, 1968), p. 190.

[82] Aramaic English Standard Version is a recent standard translation and can be found on the internet at:

http://www.peshitta.net/peshitta/indExodus php   and http://www.peshitta.net/peshitta/mmpdf/peshitta-sampler.pdf

An Aramaic-English Interlinear Bible is also available at:   

http://www.peshitta.org  and http://www.aramaicpeshitta.com/AramaicNTtools/peshitta_interlinear.htm

[83] Another by Miles Coverdale in 1539

[84] This translation began under Queen [Bloody] Mary and then later was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I in 1560.

[85] Translated from the Latin Vulgate, where the Old Testament was first published by the English College at Douay in 1609 and the New Testament was first published by the English College at Rheims in 1582. It was the first English translation of the Latin Vulgate by Roman Catholic scholars in France  and was later revised by Richard Challoner in 1738 through 1772.

[86] Although among British readers, the term, “Authorized Version,” is popular and reflects the social and political milieu of King James’ day in which he had to exercise his royal authority to have the translation done and approved, as the sovereign King of England for the churches and Church of England.

[87] In 1604, a year into James’ reign with turmoil in the religious ranks, a conference was held at Hampton Court. King James organized some 50 “learned men” meeting at Oxford, Cambridge, and Westminster with careful translation guidelines in revising the Bishops’ Bible.

[88] In contrast an examination of the 1560 Geneva Bible version of Psalm 46 reveals that both words “shake” and “speare” occur in the relevant verses (3 and 9), as in the KJV, though with a slightly different word count. “Shake” is the 48th, rather than 46th, word from the beginning of the Psalm (ignoring the title) and “speare” is the 44th word from the end of the Psalm (or 45th, depending on whether “selah” is excluded from or included in the count). It seems quite probable that the KJV picked up its use of “shake” and “speare” in the 3rd and 9th verses respectively from the prior Geneva Bible (the precise wording of Psalm 46 in the Geneva and the KJV is usually identical, with a relative few differences). The Geneva Bible was the English Bible version most closely followed by the KJV translators in their revision work and was published 4 years before Shakespeare’s birth and therefore certainly uninfluenced by him in any way--indeed, he was influenced by it.

[89] A 1631 edition of the Cambridge KJV is known as “The Wicked Bible” for omitting “not” in the 7th commandment, “Thou shalt commit adultery.” The Wicked Bible was such an embarrassment to the Anglican Church that the archbishop ordered the Bibles to be burned, and he fined the printer, Robert Barker, 300 pounds—no small sum in those days. Barker, who had been the king’s printer since the Authorized Version came out, died fourteen years later in debtor’s prison.  Another Cambridge edition was guilty of at least four gems in the way of misprints: “sons of Bilial” for “sons of Bilhah (Bala)” (Genesis 37:2); “slew two lions like men,” for “two lion-like men” (II Samuel 23:20); the Midianites “vex you with their wives” instead of “wiles.” Another unfortunate edition was that of 1653, which omitted “or who hath opened his eyes” from John 9:21, and in Rom. 6:13 wrote: “your members as instruments of righteousness,” for “unrighteousness”; conversely, in I Corinthians 6:9 ii has, “know you not that the righteous [for “unrighteous”] shall not process the kingdom of God?” 

[90] Such as in 1 Peter 3:1, where it is odd to win a husband by her “silent” conversation, if so misunderstood.

[91] From pre- [ahead] + venio [to come, go, vent]

[92] Divisions within the Church Universal, even individual congregations.

[93] The Church Universal here.

[94] This follows the manner in the Greek New Testament, where there is no Greek translation for “YHWH” but only the use of Kyrios, as a translation for it, meaning “Lord” somewhat corresponding to the Hebrew word and use of Adonai for God.

[95] Although the KJV’s translators’ grammar in 1 Corinthians 2:4 is inconsistent with their use of “was” instead of “were” – “And my speech and my preaching was not with enticing words of man's wisdom…”

[96] Since the Aleppo Manuscript is not complete, for those areas missing the Leningrad Manuscript B 19a  is used

[97] After a long odyssey the codex found its way to Jerusalem in 1958, with unfortunately a major portion missing. In 1976 a facsimile of the manuscript was published and inspired the book edition closely resembling the original text. Thanks to the painstaking work of the renowned Scholar Rabbi Mordechai Breuer, the lost parts - almost the entire Pentateuch - could be reconstructed.

[98] Most all translations since 1880’s have used this and its earlier forms.

[99] One might pictorially illustrate the translation process using what is called “crazy quilting” which sews together patches in varied and odd shapes rather than squares or rectangles or triangles. Reality and ideas are labeled with words having various “semantic domains,” much as the various patches on the quilt, albeit a bit irregular in shapes and at times even with “holes”. Picture the semantic fields of meaning for various words in, say, the Greek language.  The Greek languages has divided objective reality into various areas of meaning [semantic fields] and each area, as a “crazy patch,” has been given a Greek word phrase, as a label covering those ideas.  English has done the same thing with its words.  Picture these two crazy quilts hanging closely n two parallel clotheslines.  If one hangs these two quilts in a close parallel with each other to allow for a one-to-one correspondence in reality for each blanket to cover the other, then one can picture how the meaning of a Greek word on one quilt can overlap the meaning of an English word on the other quilt but often not exactly.  Sometimes on quilt-patch would overlap 2 or 3 of the other, or visa versa.  At times the same quilt-patch may have several locations in one quilt but not the other.  The translation process is trying to match up the two sets of quilt-patches. For example, there would be various overlapping of the word, love, in English with two or more in Greek (including agapō and philō).  The one Greek word, pistis, would overlap the two English words, “faith” and “faithfulness.”

[100] This is called “transference.” Transference in translating can be illustrated in two ways by an incident in astronomy. In 1877 Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli, an astronomer at the Milan Observatory in Italy, announced the observation of canali on the surface of Mars. By that term he meant channels (which can be of natural origin), but the translation to English was canals, which implied that the features had been built artificially. Percival Lowell studied Mars and Venus in great detail and “discovered” that Mars did have canals. Other astronomers were unable to reproduce Lowell’s observations, however, and later studies of the planet eventually dispelled the notion of canals.  What he was seeing, with striking clarity, were the blood vessels in the retina of his eye; Lowell masked the secondary mirror of his telescope to such an extent to dim the brightness of Mars that he might have, in effect, turned the telescope into an ophthalmoscope.  He also drew a network of lines on Venus. With his telescope stopped down and a high magnification in use, the light beam exiting the eyepiece gets very small. This produces the effect of making the retinal veins in the eye visible! It was figured out only recently that Lowell’s drawings of lines on Venus were almost certainly drawings of the veins in his own eye!

[101] A technical term for a four-letter word.

[102] This is very nice for anyone seeking to learn Spanish as a second language or English as a second language.

[103] Schonfield is somewhat loose in his textual consideration of Philippians 1:21 where he takes the Greek word, Christos, for “Christ” and changes it to chrestos for “useful.”  His liberal theology shows in Philippians 2:6 [“…being in the form of God”], where he sees Christ, as only  the second Adam made in the image of God, and not as God Himself, with the translation, “though he had godlike form.”

[104] See http://rockhay.tripod.com/cottonpatch/indExodus.htm for some details and e-text of this version.

[105] This is not to be confused with The Jerusalem Bible of 1966 based upon the Roman Catholic French version La Bible de Jérusalem

[106] This might could be compared to using the cognate, “philandering,” as a translation for “to love their husbands” in Titus 2:4.  It encompasses a semantic field very foreign, even opposite, to the idea used by Paul here.  The same is true for translating agnōstos in Acts 27:23, as “unknown” rather than “agnostic.”

[107] There is a very nice parallel version called The Bilingual Bible  that includes the Spanish Reina Valera 1960 Version text and the New King James English Version.  In fact, this edition is very nice for someone interested in learning English, as a Spanish reader, or Spanish, as an English reader, since the texts in the original languages are the same as the New King James Version.  Their translation procedure is more literal than idiomatic. Also the target languages are contemporaneous modern English and modern Spanish.

[108] For locating a copy:  ISBN 0-310-92610-6.

[109] See www.lxx.org 

[110] Translated by the sceptic, Hugh J. Schonfield, Jewish historian who also wroteThe Passover Plot: A New Interpretation of the Life and Death of Jesus.

[111] This again is the biblical principle of perspicuity, in that the Bible is intended to be clear and lucid and free of obscurity to the reader of faith.

[112] Such as The Evangelical Parallel NT  with NKJV, NIV, ESV, HCSB, TNIV, NLT, NCV, & The Message.

[113] Thomas Nelson Pub., 2012, ISBN-10: 1418548677 / ISBN-13: 978-1418548674

[114] Word Bibles, 1998, ISBN: 0849954231

[115] 1997 – ISBN: 088707314X

[116] English Standard Version – by R. C. Sproul

[117] Mathis Publishers, 1993, ISBN-10: 0935491007 / ISBN-13: 978-0935491005

[118] On the Internet retrieved in 2017 are the following On-line Interlinear Bible Translations:

https://www.logosapostolic.org/bibles/interlinear_nt.htm

http://biblehub.com/interlinear/

http://www.scripture4all.org/OnlineInterlinear/Hebrew_Index.htm

http://interlinearbible.com/

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=stefankmitph.hiot&hl=en

[119] Hendrickson Publishers, 2005, ISBN-10: 1565639774 / ISBN-13: 978-1565639775

[120] Zondervan, 1993, ISBN-10: 031040200X / ISBN-13: 978-0310402008

[121] Thomas Nelson, 1993, ISBN-10: 0840783574 / ISBN-13: 978-0840783578

[122] Thomas Nelson, 1994, ASIN: B00RWSG4BW

[123] As to a multivolume set, a Bible Encyclopedia is more extensive than just Bible Dictionary.  Two suggested ones are:  International Standard Bible Encyclopedia and The Zondervan Pictorial Bible Encyclopedia.

[124] ISBN 0-8407-2071-8

[125] 2004, ISBN-10- 0785252444 / ISBN-13- 9780785252443

[126] ISBN 0-8054-2836-4

[127] Moody Publishers, 2006, ISBN-10: 0802490662 / ISBN-13: 978-0802490667

[128] ISBN 0-89957-678-8

[129] ISBN 0-8028-4250-X

[130] one-volume Bible dictionary by Intervarsity Press

[131] AMG Publishers, 2004, ISBN: 0899571263 / ISBN-13: 9780899571263

[132] Moody Publishers, 2003, ISBN-10: 0802486495 /ISBN-13: 978-0802486493]

[133] A free pdf of this can be downloaded at: https://www.agathonlibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Gerhard-Kittel-Editor-Gerhard-Friedrich-Editor-Theological-Dictionary-of-the-New-Testament_-Abridged-in-One-Volume-Eerdmans-1985.pdf

[134] A loose-leaf binder allows you to interleaf notes, as they grow.  A personal computer will give you even more flexibility to add and edit and change notes, along with even copying and pasting from various sources, such as even from the internet.